Tunisia

Tunisia,e e itsegeng semmuso e le Rephaboliki ya Tunisia, ke lefatshe le le kwa bokone jwa Aferika.^[1] Ke karolo ya kgaolo ya Maghreb ya Aferika Bokone, e tshwaraganetse molelwane le Algeria go ya kwa bophirima le borwabophirima, le Libya go ya kwa borwabotlhaba, le Lewatle la Mediterranean go ya kwa bokone le botlhaba. E na le mafelo a ditso a Carthage a a saleng a nna teng go tloga ka lekgolo la bo9 la dingwaga, mmogo le Great Mosque ya Kairouan. E itsege ka kago ya yone ya bogologolo, marekisetso le bontle jwa lotshitshi la lewatle jo bo akaretsang 163,610 km2 (63,170 sq mi), mme e na le baagi ba le dimilione di le 12,1. E akaretsa bokhutlo jwa botlhaba jwa Dithaba tsa Atlas le bokone jwa sekaka sa Sahara; bontsi jwa karolo e kgolo ya sebatla sa yone ke sa temo. Dikilometara di le 1,300 (810 mi) tsa lotshitshi ke tse go kopanang teng dikgaolo tsa Afrika tse di leng mo bophirima le botlhaba jwa Mediterranean Basin. Tunisia o ikanegile mo bokone jwa Aferika, ko makopanelong a Cape Angela; mme motsemogolo wa lone le toropokgolo ke Tunis, e e mo lotshitshing lwa bokonebotlhaba, mme e naya lefatshe leina la lone.

Go simolola mo metlheng ya maloba, baagi ba tlholegilng kwaTunisia ke Ba-Imazighen . Ba-Fenikia ba ile ba tla go thibelela koo morago mo lekgolong la bo12 la dingwaga BC, ba tlhoma metse e le mmalwa, mme Carthage e ne ya fetoga go nna le maatla mo lekgolong la bosupa la dingwaga BC. Carthage e ne e le mmusomogolo wa mercantile le batlhabani bagolo ba sesole kgatlhanong le Rephaboliki ya Roma go fitlha ka 146 BC, fa e ne e fenngwa ke Baroma ba saleng ba thibeletse mo Tunisia dingwaga di le makgolo a robabobedi tse di fitileng. Baroma ba ne ba tlisa Bokeresete mme ba tlogela Amphitheatre ya El Jem e le ditso. Ba letso la Semoseleme ba ne ba fenya Tunisia mo lekgolong le bosupa la dingwaga AD, (e atlega go nna le dikgaolo di le 697 morago ga tse 647 kwa tshimologong), mme ba tlisa Boiselamo le setso sa Searabia mo baaging ba lefelo leo. Morago ga moo, ka 1546, Mmusomogolo wa Ottoman o ne wa tlhoma taolo koo, mo dingwageng tse di fetang Makgolo a mararo, go fitlha ka ngwaga wa 1881, fa Bafora ba fenya Tunisia. Ka 1956, Tunisia e ne ya tsaya boipuso mme ya nna Rephaboliki ya Tunisia ka fa tlase ga boeteledipele jwa ga Habib Bourguiba ka thuso ya batsosolosi jaaka Chedly Kallala, Farhat Hached le Salah ben Youssef. Gompieno, setso le boitshupo jwa Tunisia di theilwe ka go kopana ga ditso le merafe e e farologanyeng go tswa bogologolong.

Ka 2011, Dikgoberego tsa Tunisia, tse di neng di bakiwa ke go sa kgotsofalela kgololesego le temokerasi ka fa tlase ga puso ya ga tautona Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, ya dingwaga tse di masome mabedi le bone, di ile tsa menola puso ya gagwe mme tsa rotloetsa mokgatlho o mogolo wa Arab Spring go ralala kgaolo.Go ne ga nna le Ditlhopho tsa palamente tsa makoko a le mantsi moragonyana fela ga moo; lefatshe le ne la bowa gape la tshwara ditlhopho tsa palamente ka Phalane a tlhola malatsi a le masome mabedi le borataro ka 2014^[2], le tsa botautona Ngwanaatsele a tlhola malatsi a le masome a mabedi le boraro ka 2014.^[3] Tunisia e ne ya nna repaboliki ya temokerasi ya boemedi jwa tautona morago ga referendum ya molaotheo ya 2022, Go tloga ka 2014 go ya kwa go 2020, Tunisia o ne a tsewa jaaka lefatshe le le nosi le le nag le kgololesego mo Lefatsheng la Maarabia, go ya ka Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index^[4], mme e ne ya tsewa e le puso ya boleng mo tshupaneng ya 2021.^[5] Ke lengwe la mafatshe a le mmalwa mo Aferika a a leng kwa godimo mo Human Development Index, le na le letseno le le kwa godimo go gaisa mo kontinenteng, le le mo maemong a bo 129 mo GDP ya letseno.

Tunisia e kopantswe sentle le setšhaba sa boditšhabatšhaba. Ke leloko la United Nations, La Francophonie, Arab League, OIC, African Union, COMESA, Non-Aligned Movement, International Criminal Court, le Group of 77, gareng ga tse dingwe. E na le tirisano mmogo e e siameng le mafatshe a Yuropa mo go tsa itsholelo le sepolotiki, segolo jang Fora^[6], le Italy,^[7][8] ka ntlha ya go kopanela molelwane. Tunisia gape e na le tumalano ya tirisanommogo le European Union mme e ne ya tsaya maemo a go sa nna mophato o mogolo wa Nato ya United States.

Lefoko Tunisia le tswa mo go Tunis; e leng lefelo le le mo khubung ya toropo le motsemogolo wa Tunisia wa segompieno. Mokgwa wa leina leo wa segompieno, le kgolagano ya lone le Selatine -ia, o tswa mo Seforeng Tunisie^[9], mme gantsi o amanngwa le modi wa Berber, o o ranololwang e le tns, o o rayang "go robala" kgotsa go "kampa".^[10] Nako tse dingwe o amanngwa le modimo wa sesadi wa Punic Tanith (kgotsa Tunit)^[9][11], le motse wa bogologolo wa Tynes.^[12][13]

Leina la Sefora la Tunisie le ne la amogelwa mo dipuong dingwe tsa Yuropa ka diphetogo tse ditshesane, go tsenngwa leina le le kgethegileng go fa tlhaloso ya lefatshe. Dipuo tse dingwe di tlogetse leina le sa fetolwa ka gope, jaaka Se-Russia e leng Túни́с (Tunís) le Se-Spain Туни́с. Mo kgannyeng e, leina le le dirisiwa go kaya lefatshe le toropo, jaaka go ntse ka Searabia تونس, mme fela motho o ka kgona farologanya bobedi jo go ya ka se go buiwang ka sone.

  Mekgwa ya temothuo ne ya fitlha kwa Mokgatšheng wa Nile go tswa kgaolong ya Fertile Crescent kwa 5000 BC, mme ya anamela kwa Maghreb ka 4000 BC. Ka nako eo ,Ditšhaba tsa temothuo mo dipoeng tse di bongola tsa lotshitshi lwa bogare jwa Tunisia ke badimo ba merafe ya gompieno ya Berber.

Mo bogologolong go ne go dumelwa fa Aferika a thamilwe ke morafe wa Ba-Gaetuli le Ba-Libya, bobedi jo e ne e le bakgarakgatshegi. Go ya ka mokwadi wa hisitori wa Moroma Sallust, modingwana Hercules o ne a swela kwa Spain mme masole a gagwe a a buwa dipuo tse di farologaneng kwa botlhaba ba ne ba tlogelwa go nna mo lefelong leo, fa ba bangwe ba ne ba fudugela kwa Aferika. Baperesia ba ne ba tsamaela kwa Bophirima mme ba nyalana le Ba-Gaetuli mme ba fetoga nna Ba-Numidia. Ba-Meda ba ne ba nna foo mme ba itsiwe jaaka Mauri, moragonyana Moors.^[14]

Ba-Numidia le Ba-Moor ba ne ba tswa mo morafeng o e leng gore Ba-Berber ba ne ba tswa mo go one. Tlhaloso ya re Numidian ke Nomad mme tota batho ba e ne e le bakgarakgatshegi go fitlha ka puso ya Masinissa ya morafe wa Massyli.^[15][16]

Kwa tshimologong go ya ka hisitori e e kwadilweng, morafe wa Berber ke one baagi ba Tunisia. Lotshitshi lwa yone lo agilwe ke Ba-Fenike bogologo mo tshimologong ya lekgolo la bo12 la dingwaga BC (Bizerte, Utica). Toropo ya Carthage e theilwe mo lekgolong la bo9 la dingwaga BC ke Bafenikia. Bathami ba bolela gore Dido go tswa kwa Ture, yo jaanong e leng Lebanona wa segompieno, o tlhomilwe toropo ka 814 BC, se se buiwa gape ke mokwadi wa Mogerika Timaeus wa Tauromenium. Baagi ba Carthage ba ne ba tisa ditso le tumelo ya bone go tswa kwa Phoenicia, e jaanong e leng Lebanon le mafelo a a bapileng le ene.^[17]

Morago ga dintwa tse di tlhomaganeng le ditoropo tsa Gerika tsa Sicily mo lekgolong la botlhano la dingwaga BC, Carthage e ne ya nna maatla mme kgabagare ya nna yone toropo e e thabologileng thata mo Bophirima jwa Mediterranean. Batho ba Carthage ba ne ba obamela medimo ya Botlhabagare ka go farologana ba akaretsa Baale le Tanit. Letshwao la ga Tanit, le e leng setshwantsho sa mosadi se se nang le matsogo a a atlolotsweng le seaparo se seleele, ke setshwantsho se se fitlhelwang mo mafelong a bogologolo ebile se itsege thata. Batlhami ba Carthage gape ba ne ba tlhoma Tophet, e e neng ya fetolwa mo metlheng ya Roma.

Tlhaselo ya Carthage ya Italy e e neng e eteletswe pele ke Hannibal ka nako ya Ntwa ya Bobedi ya Punic, e le nngwe ya dintwa tse di latelenang kgatlhanong le Roma, ene ya batla go kgoreletsa go gola ga Roma go nna le maatla. Go tloga kwa bokhutlong jwa Ntwa ya Bobedi ya Punic ka 202 BC, Carthage o ne a bereka jaaka moemedi wa Rephaboliki ya Roma dingwaga di le masome matlhano ka go latelana .^[18]

Morago ga Ntwa ya Carthage e e simologileng ka 149 BC ka nako ya Ntwa ya Boraro ya Punic, Roma e ne ya fenya Carthage ka 146 BC^[19]. Morago ga phenyo ya bone, Baroma ba ne ba fetola leina la Carthage go nna Aferika, ba e kopanya jaaka porofense.

Ka nako ya puso ya Roma, lefelo le jaanong e leng Tunisia le ne la itumelela ditlhabologo tse dikgolo thata. Itsholelo, bogolo jang ka nako ya Mmusomogolo, e ne ya gola: khumo ya lefelo le e ne e ikaegile ka temothuo.Granary of the Empire jaaka le bidiwa, e lengTunisia le lotshitshi la Tripolitania , le ne le ntsha ditone di le milione o le mongwe tsa mabele ngwaga le ngwaga, mme kwatara ya tsone e ne e romelwa kwa Mmusomogolong, go ya ka kakanyetso nngwe. Dijalo tse dingwe di ne di akaretsa dinawa, difeige, morara le maungo a mangwe.

Mo lekgolong la bobedi la dingwaga, kagaisano ya tse di romelwang kwa ntle e ne e le magare ga oli ya motlhware le mabele. Mo godimo ga temo le go tshwara le go tsaya diphologolo tse di sa tlwaelesegang tsa naga go tswa kwa dithabeng tsa bophirima, tse dikgolo go dirwa lego romelwa kwa ntle di ne di akaretsa matsela, mmabole, beine, logong, diruiwa, dilo tsa letsopa jaaka African Red Slip, le wulu.

Go ne go na le dilo tse dintsi tsa mosaics le letsopa, tse di neng di romelwa kwa Italy, mo kgaolong ya legare ya El Djem (kwa go neng go na le lefelo la bobedi le legolo mo Mmusomogolong wa Roma).

Bishopo wa Berber Donatus Magnus e ne e le mosimolodi wa setlhopha sa Bokeresete se se itsegeng ka Donatists^[20]. Mo lekgolong la botlhano le la borataro la dingwaga (go tloga ka 430 go ya go 533 AD), Majeremane a Ba-Vandal ba ne ba tlhasela le go busa kwa Bokonebophirima jwa Aforika bo akaretsa Tripoli wa gompieno. Kgaolo eno e ne ya fengwa gape motlhofo ka 533 Xi 534 AD, ka nako ya puso ya Mmusimogolo Justinian I, ke Baroma ba Botlhaba ba ba neng ba eteletswe pele ke Moeteledi pele mogolo Belisarius.^[21]

 

Mo sephatlong sa bobedi sa lekgolo la bo7 la dingwaga le karolo ya ntlha ya lekgolo la bo8 la dingwaga, phenyo ya Baarabia ba mamoseleme e ne ya diragala mo kgaolong eo. Ba ne ba tlhoma toropo ya bone ya ntlha ya Boiselamo kwa Bokonebophirima jwa Aferika, Kairouan. toropo ena e ne e le teng ka 670 AD fa Mosque ya Uqba, kgotsa Mosque o mogolo wa Kairouan, o ne o agiwa.^[22] Mosque o ke lefelo la bogologolo le le boitshepo le le tlotlegang thata kwa Bophirima jwa Bamoseleme o o nang le tora ya bogologolo go di feta tsotlhe mo lefatsheng;^[23] gape e tsewa e le tiro ya botswerere ya botaki le dikago.^[24]

Tunis e ne ya gapiwa ka 695, ya gapiwa gape ke Baroma ba Botlhaba ba Byzantium ka 697, mme ya latlhegelwa go ya go ile ka 698. Phetogo go tswa mo mokgatlhong wa Bakeresete ba Berber ba ba buang Selatine go ya kwa mokgatlhong o o buang Searabia e tsere dingwaga di feta 400 (tsamaiso e e tshwanang kwa Egepeto le Fertile Crescent e tsere mengwaga e le 600) mme ya felela ka go nyelela ga Bakeresete le Selatine mo lekgolong la bo12 kgotsa la bo13 la dingwaga. Bontsi jwa baagi e ne e se Bamoseleme go fitlha kwa bofelong jwa lekgolo la bo9 la dingwaga; bontsi bo ne bo le mo lekgolong la bo10 la dingwaga. Gape, Bakeresete bangwe ba Tunisia ba ne ba fuduga; bangwe ba ba humileng ba setšhaba ba ne ba dira jalo morago ga phenyo ka 698 mme ba bangwe ba ne ba amogelwa ke babusi ba Norman kwa Sicily kgotsa Italy mo lekgolong la bo11 le la bo12 la dingwaga, e leng lefelo le le neng le le le neng la ya kwa go lone ka ntlha ya go amana ga dikgaolo tse pedi ka dingwaga di le 1200.^[25]

Babusi ba Baarabia ba Tunis ba ne ba tlhoma losika lwa segosi lwa Aghlabid, lo lo neng la busa Tunisia, Tripolitania le botlhaba jwa Algeria go tloga ka 800 go ya go 909.^[26] Tunisia e ne ya atlega ka fa tlase ga puso ya Baarabia fa go ne go agiwa ditsamaiso tse di anameng go tlamela ditoropo ka metsi a a dirisiwang mo magaeng le go nosetsa a a neng a rotloetsa temothuo (segolobogolo temothuong ya motlhware).^[26][27]Katlego eo e ne ya dira gore go nne le botshelo jwa manobonobo kwa kgotleng mme e ne ya tshwaiwa ke go agiwa ga metse e mesha ya segosi jaaka al-Abbasiya (809) le Raq Adda (877).^[26]

Morago ga go fenya Cairo, Ba-Fatimid ba ne ba tlogela Tunisia le dikarolo tsa Algeria Botlhaba go ya go Ba-Zirid ka (972 Xi1148).^[28] Zirid Tunisia e ne ya atlega mo mafelong a le mantsi: temothuo, madirelo, kgwebo, le thuto ya sedumedi le ya boitshediso.^[29] Le fa go ntse jalo, beteledipele jwa Zirid emirs bo ne bo itlhokomolositse se, pheletsong sa amangwa le sepolotiki se se sa iketlang mme se sa baka kwelo tlase mo go tsa kgwebo le temothuo kwa Tunisia.^[26][30][31]

Go senngwa ga ipapatso ya Tunisia ke Banu Hilal, morafe o o ratang ntwa wa Baarabia wa Bedouin o o neng o rotloediwa ke Ba-Fatimid ba Egepeto go gapa Aforika wa Bokonebophirima, go ne ga dira gore itsholelo ya selegae le ya ditoropo e wele tlase.^[28] Maduo a se a ne a baka gore batho ba fudugele kwa toropong mme palo ya batho ya nna potlana, madirelo le one a fetoga go tswa mo temothuong go tsena mo tirong ya diatla.^[32] Mokwalahisitori wa Moarabia Ibn Khaldun o kwadile gore dinaga tse di sentsweng ke batlhasedi ba Banu Hilal di fetogile sekaka se se omeletseng.^[30][33]

Ditoropodikgolo tsa Tunisia di ne tsa fenngwa ke Ba-Norman ba Sicily ka fa tlase ga Bogosi jwa Afrika mo lekgolong la bo12 la dingwaga, mme Ba-Normand ba ne ba fudusediwa kwa Sicily, morago ga phenyo ya Tunisia ka 1159 le1160 ke Ba-Almohad. Ditlhopha tsa Bakeresete ba Tunisia di ne tsa nna teng kwa Nefzaoua go fitlha ka lekgolo la bo14 la dingwaga^[34]. Ba-Almohad ba ne ba busa Tunisia ka mmusi, thatathata wa losika lwa ga Caliph. Go sa kgathalesege bolengteng jwa barena ba basha, lefatshe le, le ne le tshabelelwa ke dikhuduego le dintwa tse di tsweletseng pele fa gare ga batho ba motse, Baarabia le Ba-Turkey ba ba neng ba gwanta mo mekgwatlheng, ba neng ba amangwa le motlhasedi wa Mo-Armenia wa Momoselema e bong Karakush.. Ba-Ayyubid le bone ba ne ba thibelela kwa Tunisia magareng ga 1182 le 1183 le1184 le 1187.^[35]

Matshosetsi a magolo a puso ya Ba-Almohad kwa Tunisia e ne e le Ba-Banu Ghaniya, masika a Ba-Almoravid, ba ba neng ba leka go busetsa puso ya Ba'Almohad mo Maghreb go tswa kwa ba thibeletseng teng kwa Mallorca. ba ne ba atlega mo go busengTunisia wotlhe ka 1200 go fitlha ba fenngwa ke masole a Almohad ka 1207. Morago ga katlego ee, Ba-Almohad ba ne ba tlhoma Walid Abu Hafs jaaka mmusi wa Tunisia. Tunisia o ne a tswelela a nna karolo ya puso ya Almohad, go fitlha ka 1230 fa morwa Abu Hafs a ipolela fa a ikemetse. Ka nako ya puso ya losika lwa segosi lwa Hafsid, botsalano ka tsa kgwebo tse di nang le maungo di ne tsa tlhomiwa le makgotla a le mmalwa a Bakeresete a Mediterranean. Kwa bokhutlong jwa lekgolo la bo16 la dingwaga, lotshitshi lo ne la nna boremelelo jwa dirukutlhi.

Mo dingwageng tsa bofelo tsa bogosi jwa Hafsid, Spain e ne ya gapa metse e e fa lotshitshing e le mentsi, mme e ne ya busediwa ke Mmusomogolo wa Ottoman .

Ka fa tlase ga taolo ya Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha morwarraagwe Oruç Reis, yo e neng e le Kapudan Pasha wa Ottoman Fleet ka nako ya puso ya ga Suleiman the Magnificent , Ba-Ottoman wa Tunis o ne a nna le phenyo ya ntlha ka 1534. Le fa go ntse jalo, Ba-Ottoman ba ne ba gapa Tunisia gape go tswa kwa Spain ka 1574 ka fa tlase ga Kapudan Pasha Uluç Ali Reis fa Ba-Attoman ba gapa se pele e neng e le Hafsid Tunisia, ba se boloka go fitlha Bafora ba gapa Tunis ka 1881.

Kafa tlase ga puso ya Turkey go tswa kwa Algiers, Ottoman Porte e ne ya tlhoma mmusi yo o bidiwang Pasha ka kemonokeng ya masole a Janissary kwa Tunis. Mme, Tunisia e ne ya nna porofense e e ikemetseng ka nosi, ka fa tlase ga bey ya selegae. Ka fa tlase ga babusi ba Turkey, ba-beys, Tunisia e ne ya bona boipuso. losika lwa ga Hussein lwa bo-beys, lo lo neng lwa tlhomiwa ka 1705, lo ne lwa tswelela go fitlha ka 1957^[36]. Ka nako tsotlhe diphetogo tse di ne gwetlhiwa ke Algiers mme di sa atlege. Ka nakong eo, dikhansele tse di laolang tse di neng di laola Tunisia di ne di sa ntse di dirilwe ke bontsi jwa batswakwa ba ba neng ba tsweletse ka go dira kgwebo ya puso ka puo ya Se-Turkey.

Ditlhaselo mo dikepeng tsa Yuropa di ne di dirwa ke batsamaisi ba dikepe, thata go tswa kwa Algiers le Tunis le Tripoli, le fa go ntse jalo ditlhaselo di ne tsa wela tlase, Yuropa o ne a nna le maatla mme kgabagare a pateletsa gore di fedisiwe. Ka fa tlase ga Mmusomogolo wa Ottoman, melelwane ya Tunisia e ne ya khutla; mme a latlhegelwa ke taolo kwa bophirima (Constantine) le kwa botlhaba (Tripoli).

Leroborobo le ne la tlhasela Tunisia ka 1784 go ya go1785, 1796 go ya go1797 le 1818go ya go 1820.^[37]

Mo lekgolong la bo19 la dingwaga, babusi ba Tunisia ba ne ba lemoga maiteko a a tsweletseng a go fetola sepolotiki le loago mo motsemogolong wa Ottoman. Bey wa Tunis ka nako eo, ka dipone tsa gagwe a tsaya sekao ka Turkey, o ne a leka go dira ditlhabologo tsa segompieno tsa mekgatlho le itsholelo.^[38] Sekoloto sa boditšhabatšhaba sa Tunisia se ne sa gola go feta dikakanyo. Seno e ne e le lebaka kgotsa seipato sa gore masole a Fora a tlhome puso e e sireletsang ka 1881.

Ka 1869, Lefatshe la Tunisia le ne la ipolela fa le sa kgone go duela mme komiti ya madi ya boditšhabatšhaba e ne ya tsaya taolo ya itsholelo ya lone. Ka 1881, Bafora ba ne ba tlhasela Tunisia ka masole a ka nna 36 000 ba dirisa seipato sa gore o tlhasetse Algeria, mme ba pateletsa Bey go dumalana le ditsetana tsa 1881 Treaty of Bardo (Al Qasr as Sa'id).^[39] Ka tumalano e, Tunisia e ne ya dirwa puso ya Fora semmuso, le fa Italy e ne e sa dumalane le se. Ka fa tlase ga bokolone jwa Fora, g Bayuropa ba ne ba rotloediwa go fudugela kwa lefatsheng leo thata; palo ya bakolone ba Fora e ne ya gola go tswa go 34 000 ka 1906 go ya go 144 000 ka 1945. Ka 1910 go ne go na le Ma-Italy a le 105,000 kwa Tunisia.

Ka nako ya Ntwa ya Lefatshe II, Tunisia ya Sefora e ne e laolwa ke puso ya Vichy kwa Metropolitan France, Molao o o kgatlhanong le Bajuta o o neng o tlhomilwe ke puso ya Vichy o ne wa tsenngwa mo tirisong kwa Bokonebophirima jwa Aferika e e laolwang ke Vichy le mafelo a mangwe a Fora a a kwa moseja. Ka jalo, pogiso, le polao ya Bajuta go tloga ka 1940 go ya go 1943 e ne e le karolo ya Polao ya Kgailo kwa Fora.

Ka Ngwanaatsele 1942 go fitlha ka Motsheganong 1943, bontlha jwa Tunisia jo bo neng bo laolwa ke Vichy bo ne jwa gapiwa ke Jeremane. SS Commander Walter Rauff o ne a tswelela go tsenya mo tirisong "Tshwetso ya Bofelo" koo. Go tloga ka 1942 go ya go 1943, Tunisia e ne e le boremelelo jwa jwa ipapatso ya Tunisia, dintwa tse di sa feleng magareng ga masole a Axis le Allied. Ntwa e, e simolotse ka katlego ya ntlha ya masole a Jeremane le a Italy, mme go nna le dijo tse dintsi le palo e e kwa godimo ya Balekane go ne ga dira gore Axis e ineele ka Motsheganong a tlhola malatsi a le lesome le boraro 1943.^[40][41] Letsholo la dikgwedi di le thataro la go golola Tunisia mo pusong ya Axis le ne la supa bokhutlo jwa Ntwa ya Lefatshe II mo Afrika.

Tunisia e ne ya bona boipuso go tswa kwa Fora ka Mopitlo a tlhola malatsi a le masome mabedi ka 1956 le Habib Bourguiba e le Tonakgolo^[42]. Boipuso jwa Tunisia bo ketekwa Mopitlo a tlhola malatsi a le masome mabedi ngwaga le ngwaga .^[43] Ngwaga morago ga moo, Tunisia e ne ya bolelwa e le repaboliki, mme Bourguiba e le ene Tautona wa ntlha.^[44] Go tloga ka boipuso ka 1956 go fitlha ka phetogo ya 2011, puso le Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), Neo Destour le Socialist Destourian Party, ba ne ba le bangwe. Morago ga pego ya Amnesty International, The Guardian e ne ya bitsa Tunisia "lengwe la Mafatshe a segompieno mme a gatelela mo lefatsheng la Maarabia".^[45]

Ka Ngwanatsele 1987, dingaka di ne tsa bolela gore Bourguiba ga a itekanela go busa^[46],, mme ka go menola puso ntleng le tshololo ya madi, Tonakgolo Zine El Abidine Ben Ali o ne a tsaya maemo a go nna tautona go ya ka Molawana wa 57 wa molaotheo wa Tunisia.^[44][47] Segopotso sa go tlhatlhama ga ga Ben Ali, Ngwanaatsele a tlhola malatsi a supa, se ne sa ketekwa jaaka letsatsi la boitapoloso la bosetšhaba. O ne a tlhophiwa gape ka bontsi jo bogolo morago ga ngwaga tse tlhano makgetho a le mantsi (go feta 80 lekgolong ya ditlhopho), la bofelo e ne e le kaPhalane a tlhola malatsi a le masome mabedi le botlhano ka 2009, go fitlha a tshaba mo lefatsheng leo ka ntlha ya dikhuduego tsa batho ka Hirikgong 2011.^[48]

Ben Ali le ba lelwapa la gagwe ba ne ba latofadiwa ka tshenyetso setshaba le go gopela itsholelo ya lefatshe.^[49] Balwela Kgololesego ya itsholelo ba ne ba kaya ditshono tse dingwe tsa go sa dirise madi sentle,^[50] fa maloko a a bosula a lelwapa la ga Trabelsi, segolobogolo ba ba gaufi le Imed Trabelsi le Belhassen Trabelsi ba ne ba laola mohama wa tsa kgwebo ka bontsi mo lefatsheng. ^[51] Mohumagadi wa ntlha Leila Ben Ali o ne a tlhalosiwa jaaka "motho yo o tshwakgotsweng ke mabenkele" ebile gokaiwa fa a dirisa sefofane sa puso go tsaya maeto a a seng kafa molaong go ya kwa ditoropong tsa difeshene tsa Yuropa.^[52] Tunisia e ganne kopo ya Fora ya go ntsha ditlogolo tse pedi tsa ga Tautona, go tswa mo letlhakoreng la ga Leila, ba ba neng ba bonwa molato wa go utswana dikepe tse dikgolo tse pedi kwa boemakepeng jwa Fora ke mosekisi wa Puso ya Fora.^[53] Go ya ka Le Monde, mogwe wa ga Ben Ali o ne a siametse go tsaya puso ya lefatshe leo.^[54]

Mekgatlo ya ditshwanelo tsa setho e e ikemetseng ka nosi, jaaka Amnesty International, Freedom House, le Protection International, di kwadile gore go ne ga nna kgatako ya ditshwanelo tsa setho tse di tlwaelesegileng le tsa sepolotiki.^[55][56] Ba kaya fa puso e ne e kgoreletsa tiro ya makgotla a ditshwanelo tsa batho a selegae.^[57] Ka 2008, go ya ka kgololesego ya go gatisa, Tunisia e ne e le mo maemong a bo 143 mo go a le 173.^[58]

Diphetogo tsa Tunisia e ne e le letsholo le le tseneletseng la kganetso ya selegae le le neng le tlhotlhelediwa ke letlhoko la ditiro, tlhaelo ya dijo, Tshenyetso Sechaba,^{[59] [60]}go tlhoka kgololesego ya puo le kgololesego mo go tsa sepolotiki ^[61]le go tshelelela mo lehumeng.^[62] Diyuniti tsa badiri di ne di bolelwa e le karolo e e botlhokwa ya ditshupetso.^[63] Ditshupetso di tlhotlheleditse Arab Spring, letsholo la ditiro tse di tshwanang go ralala lefatshe la Maarabia.

Loso lwa ga Mohamed Bouazizi le ne la gwetlha gore go nne le ditshupiso tsa morafe, mogwebi yo mo botlana wa dingwaga di le masome mabedi le borataro wa Tunisia, yo o neng a ikgapela botshelo ka go itshuba ka molelo Sedimonthole a tlhola malatsi a le lesome le bosupa ka 2010 a ngongoregela go gapiwa ga dithoto tsa gagwe le go nyenyefadiwa ke modiredi wa mmasepala yo o bidiwang Faida Hamdy. Shakgalo le tshenyo di ne tsa oketsega morago ga loso lwa ga Bouazizi Hirekgong a tlhola malatsi a le mane ka 2011, mme seno se ne sa dira gore Moporesidente wa nako e telele Zine El Abidine Ben Ali a tlogele tiro mme a siye mo lefatsheng ka Hirikgong a tlhola malatsi a le lesome le bone ka 2011, morago ga dingwaga di le 23 a le mo pusong.

Ditshupetso di ne tsa tswelela go thibela mokgatlho o o busang le go ntsha maloko otlhe a one mo pusong ya phetogo e e neng e tlhomilwe ke Mohammed Ghannouchi. Kgabagare puso e ntšhwa e ne ya ineela mo dilong tse di neng di batliwa. Kgotlatshekelo ya Tunisia e ne ya thibela mokgatlho o o tswang mo pusong wa RCD mme ya gapa didirisiwa tsotlhe tsa one. Taelo ya tona ya selegae e ne ya thibela tiriso ya "mapodise a sepolotiki", masole a a kgethegileng a a neng a dirisiwa go tshosetsa le go bogisa boradipolotiki.^[64]

Ka Mopitlo a tlhola malatsi a le mararo ka 2011, moporesidente wa nakwana o ne a itsise gore ditlhopho tsa Kokoano ya Molaotheo di tla tshwarwa ka Phukwi a tlhola malatsi a le masome mabedi le bone ka 2011.^[65] Ka Seetebosigo a tlhola malatsi a le boferabongwe ka 2011, tonakgolo o ne a itsise gore ditlhopho di tla tlosoloswa go fitlha ka 23 Phalane a tlhola malatsi a le masome mabedi le boraro ka 2011.^[66] Balebeledi ba ditlhpho ba boditšhabatšhaba le ba mo gae ba ne ba bolela fa ditlhopho di ne di gololesegile e bile di siame. Ennahda Movement, Mokgatlho o pele e neng e thibetswe ka fa tlase ga puso ya ga Ben Ali, e ne ya tswa mo ditlhophong e le lekoko le legolo, le na le ditilo di le 89 mo palong ya di le 217.^[67] Ka Sedimonthole a tlhola malatsi a le lesome le bobedi 2011, Moncef Marzouki o ne a tlhophiwa go nna moporesidente.^[68]

Ka Mopitlo 2012, Ennahda e ne ya bolela fa e sa eme nokeng Sharia go nna motswedi o mogolo wa molao metheo mo molaong o montsha wa go tshegetsa mokgwa wa lefatshe wa naga. Maikemisetso a ga Ennahda mo kgannyeng e a ne a kgalwa ke Baiselamo ba ba gagametseng, ba ba neng ba sharia e e gagametseng mme ba ne ba amogelwa ke makoko a lefatshe.^[69] Ka Tlhakole a tlhola malatsi a le marataro ka 2013, Chokri Belaid, moeteledipele wa kganetso ya lefela e bile e le moganetsi yo o tumileng wa ga Ennahda, o ne a bolawa.^[70]

Ka 2014, Moporesidente Moncef Marzouki o ne a tlhoma Khomišene ya Boammaaruri le Boitsholo ya Tunisia, e le maiteko a go boseletsa kagiso mo sechabeng. ^[71]

Tunisia e ne ya tlhaselwa gabedi mo mohameng wa bajanala ke dirukhuthi tsa mafatshe a sele ka 2015, la ntlha go bolawa batho ba le masome a mabedi le bobedi kwa Bardo National Museum, mme moragonya ga bolawa batho bale masome mararo le borobabobedi kwa Sousse beachfront. Tautona wa Tunisia e bong Beji Caid Essebsi o ne a ntšhafatsa maemo a tshoganyetso ka Phalane ka dikgwedi tse dingwe tse tharo.^[72]

Setlhopha sa Tunisia sa Dialogue Quartet sene sa fenya tlotla ya Kagiso ya Nobel ya 2015 ka ntlha ya tiro ya sone ya go aga kagiso le sepolotiki se se tlhomameng mo Tunisia.^[73]

Tautona wa ntlha wa Tunisia yo o tlhophilweng ka fa molaong e bong Beji Caid Essebsi o tlhokafetse ka Phukwi 2019.^[74] O ne a tlhatlhamiwa ke Kais Saied go nna tautona wa Tunisia morago ga phenyo ya gagwe e kgolo mo ditlhophong tsa bo tautona tsa Tunisia tsa 2019 ka Phalane.^[75] Ka Phalane a tlhola matsi a le masome mabedi le boraro 2019, Kais Saied o ne a ikanisiwa go nna Tautona yo mosha wa Tunisia.^[76]

Ka Phukwi a tlhola malatsi a le masome a mebedi le botlhano ka 2021, mo ditshupetsong tse di tsweletseng pele tebang le go sa dire sentle ga puso le tshenyetso sechaba le go oketsega ga dikgetsi tsa COVID-19, Kais Saied o ne a emisa palamente, a koba tonakgolo mme a tlosa go sirelediwa ga maloko a palamente.^[77][78] Ka Lwetse 2021, Saied o ne a re o tla tlhoma komiti go thusa go kwala diphetogo tse disha tsa molaotheo.^[79] Ka Lwetse a tlhola malatsi a le masome mabedi le boferabongwe, o ne a tlhoma Najla Bouden go nna tonakgolo e ntšhwa mme a mo naya tiro ya go bopa Kabinete, e e neng ya ikanisiwa Phalane a tlhola malatsi a le Lesome le bongwe.^[80][81]

Ka Tlhakole a tlhola malatsi a le mararo ka 2022, Tunisia e ne ya tlhophiwa go nna leloko la African Union's Peace and Security Council (AU) ka paka ya 2022 go ya go 2024, go ya ka Lephataa la Mafatshe a Sele la Tunisia. Go ya ka lephata, patlisiso e ne ya tshwarwa ka nako ya kopano ya bo masome a mane ya Khansele ya Khuduthamaga ya AU, e e neng e tshwaretswe kwa motsemogolong wa Ethiopia wa Addis Ababa.^[82]

Ka Tlhakole 2022, Tunisia le International Monetary Fund di sa ntse di le mo dipuisanong tsa ntlha ka tsholofelo ya go bona thuso ya didolara di le dibilione go ikitsha mo kwelotsaseng ya itsholelo , dikoloto tsa setšhaba, go tlhatloga ga ditlhwatlhwa le letlhoko la ditiro.^[83]

Tunisia o mo lotshitshing lwa Mediterranean kwa Bokonebophirima jwa Afrika, fa gare ga Lewatle la Atlantic le Nile Delta. O mo melelwaneng wa Algeria kwa bophirima (965 km) le borwabophirima jwa Libya kwa borwabotlhaba (459 km).^[84] E fa gare ga latitudes 30° le 38°N, le longitudes 7° le 12°E. Go retologela kwa borwa jwa lotshitshi lwa Mediterranean kwa bokone jwa Tunisia go naya lefatshe mabopo a mabedi a a tlhomologileng a Mediterranean, bophirima-botlhaba kwa bokone, le bokone-botlhabatsatsi kwa botlhaba.

Le fa e le nnye ka bogolo, Tunisia e na le tikologo e kgolo e e farologanyeng thata ka ntlha ya bontsi jwa yone kwa bokone le borwa. Bogolo jwa yone jwa botlhaba le bophirima bo lekanyeditswe. Dipharologano kwa Tunisia, fela jaaka Maghreb yotlhe, ke dipharologano tsa tikologo tsa bokone le borwa tse di tlhalosiwang thata ka go fokotsega ga pula go ya kwa borwa go tswa kwa ntlheng nngwe le nngwe..Karolo e e kwa botlhaba ya Dithaba tsa Atlas ya Dorsal, e ralala Tunisia go ya kwa bokonebotlhaba go tswa kwa molelwaneng wa Algeria kwa bophirima go ya kwa Cape Bon peninsula kwa botlhabatsatsi. Bokone jwa Dorsal ke Tell, kgaolo e e kaiwang ka dithaba tse di kwa tlase, tse di pitlaganeng le dipoa, gape e le go atolosiwa ga dithaba go ya kwa bophirima kwa Algeria. Mo Khroumerie, kwa bokonebophirima jwa Tell ya Tunisia, bogodimo bo fitlha go 1,050 metres (3,440 ft) 1,050 (3,440 ) mme kapoko e nna teng mariga.

Sahel, ke lebala le le atlolositsweng mo botlhaba jwa Tunisia jwa Mediterranean, ke lengwe la mafelo a a kwa godimo mo lefatsheng a go jalwang motlhware teng. Mo teng ga naga go tswa kwa Sahel, fa gare ga Dorsal le dithaba tse di farologaneng kwa borwa jwa Gafsa, go na le Steppes. Bontsi jwa kgaolo ya borwa ke sekaka se se omeletseng.

Tunisia e na le lotshitshi lwa lewatle lwa boleele jwa dikilometara di le 1,148 (713 mi). Mo go tsa lewatle, lefatshe le bolela gore le na le lefelo le le tshwaraganeng la 24 nautical miles (44 kilometres), le lewatle la 12 nautical miles (22 kilometres).^[85] Toropo ya Tunis e agilwe mo thoteng go ya kwa letsheng la Tunis. Dithaba tseo di na le mafelo a a tshwanang le Notre-Dame de Tunis, Ras Tabia, La Rabta, La Kasbah, Montfleury le La Manoubia a a kwa godimo ka dimetara di le 50 (160 feet). Toropokgolo e fa gare ga ditsela tsa karolo e tshesane ya lefatshe fa gare ga Letsha la Tunis le Séjoumi.^[86]

Tlelaemete ya Tunisia ke ya Mediterranean kwa bokone, e na le mariga a pula e e bothitho le selemo se se mogote, se se omileng.^[87] Borwa jwa lefatshe go sekaka. Lefelo le le kwa bokone le dithaba, le fa le ya kwa borwa, le fetoga go nna lebala le le mogote, le bogare jo bo omileng. Borwa bo omeletse go sekae, mme bo kopana le Sahara. Motseletsele wa matsha a letswai, a a itsegeng jaaka chotts kgotsa shatts, a mo moleng wa botlhaba-bophirima kwa ntlheng ya bokone ya Sahara, go tswa kwa Kgogometsong ya Gabes go ya kwa Algeria. Chott el Djerid o ko tlase mo 1,544 metres (5,066 ft) 17 (56 ft) mme Jebel ech Chambi o kwa godimo ga lewatle mo dimetara tse 1,544 (5,066 ).^[88]

Tunisia ke legae la dikgaolo di le tlhano tsa lefatshe: Mediterranean conifer le dikgwa tse di kopantsweng, Saharan halophytics, Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe, Mediterranean woodlands and forests, le North Sahara steppe and woodlands.^[89]

1. ↑ "Embassy of the Republic of Tunisia". Embassy of the Republic of Tunisia. Retrieved 2021-09-30.
2. ↑ "Tunisie : les législatives fixées au 26 octobre et la présidentielle au 23 novembre". http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/ARTJAWEB20140625141745/. 
3. ↑ "Tunisia holds first post-revolution presidential poll". https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-30165471. 
4. ↑ "Democracy Index 2021". https://infographics.economist.com/2022/democracy-index-2021/index.html. 
5. ↑ "Democracy Index 2021: The China challenge". Economist Intelligence Unit. p. 6–7. Retrieved 2 March 2022.
6. ↑ "Tunisie – France-Diplomatie – Ministère des Affaires étrangères et du Développement international".
7. ↑ Tempolete:In lang "Pourquoi l'Italie de Matteo Renzi se tourne vers la Tunisie avant l'Europe".
8. ↑ Ghanmi, Monia (12 September 2014). "La Tunisie renforce ses relations avec l'Italie" (in fr). Magharebia. http://magharebia.com/fr/articles/awi/articles/2014/09/12/feature-02. 
9. ↑ ^{9.0 9.1} Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites. McFarland. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-7864-2248-7.
10. ↑ Rossi, Peter M.; White, Wayne Edward (1980). Articles on the Middle East, 1947–1971: A Cumulation of the Bibliographies from the Middle East Journal. Pierian Press, University of Michigan. p. 132.
11. ↑ Taylor, Isaac (2008). Names and Their Histories: A Handbook of Historical Geography and Topographical Nomenclature. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-559-29668-0.
12. ↑ {{cite book}}: Empty citation (help)
13. ↑ Livy (2006). Yardley, John & Hoyos, Dexter (eds.). History of Rome. Vol. Hannibal's War: Books Twenty-one to Thirty. Oxford University Press. p. 705. ISBN 978-0-19-283159-0.
14. ↑ Banjamin Isaac, The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity, Princeton University Press, 2013 p.147
15. ↑ "Carthage and the Numidians". Hannibalbarca.webspace.virginmedia.com. Archived from the original on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
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18. ↑ Appian.
19. ↑ Steel 2013, p. 9–10. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSteel2013 (help)
20. ↑ Tempolete:Cite encyclopedia
21. ↑ Bury, John Bagnell (1958) History of the Later Roman Empire from the Death of Theodosius I. to the Death of Justinian, Part 2, Courier Corporation. pp.124–148
22. ↑ Davidson, Linda Kay; Gitlitz, David Martin (2002). Pilgrimage: From the Ganges to Graceland: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 302. ISBN 978-1-57607-004-8.
23. ↑ Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2007). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. BRILL. p. 264. ISBN 978-90-04-15388-2.
24. ↑ "Kairouan inscription as World Heritage". Kairouan.org. Archived from the original on 22 April 2012. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
25. ↑ Jonathan Conant (2012).
26. ↑ ^{26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3} . pp. 302–303. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
27. ↑ Ham, Anthony; Hole, Abigail; Willett, David. (2004). Tunisia (3 ed.). Lonely Planet. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-74104-189-7.
28. ↑ ^{28.0 28.1} . pp. 129–131. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
29. ↑ Houtsma, M. Th. (1987). E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936. BRILL. p. 852. ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6.
30. ↑ ^{30.0 30.1} . pp. 105–112. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
31. ↑ . pp. 171–173. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
32. ↑ Abulafia, The Norman Kingdom of Africa, 27.
33. ↑ "Populations Crises and Population Cycles, Claire Russell and W.M.S. Russell". Galtoninstitute.org.uk. Archived from the original on 27 May 2013. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
34. ↑ Hrbek, Ivan (1992). Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. UNESCO. International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa. J. Currey. p. 34. ISBN 0852550936.
35. ↑ Baadj, Amar (2013). "Saladin and the Ayyubid Campaigns in the Maghrib". Al-Qanṭara. 34 (2): 267–295. doi:10.3989/alqantara.2013.010.
36. ↑ Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2004). The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-7486-2137-8.
37. ↑ Panzac, Daniel (2005). Barbary Corsairs: The End of a Legend, 1800–1820. BRILL. p. 309. ISBN 978-90-04-12594-0.
38. ↑ Clancy-Smith, Julia A. (1997). Rebel and Saint: Muslim Notables, Populist Protest, Colonial Encounters (Algeria and Tunisia, 1800–1904). University of California Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-520-92037-8.
39. ↑ Gearon, Eamonn (2011). The Sahara: A Cultural History. Oxford University Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-19-986195-8.
40. ↑ Williamson, Gordon (1991). Afrikakorps 1941–43. Osprey. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-85532-130-4.
41. ↑ Palmer, Michael A. (2010). The German Wars: A Concise History, 1859–1945. Zenith Imprint. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-7603-3780-6.
42. ↑ "Tunisia profile" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2017-11-01. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14107720. 
43. ↑ "Tunisia Celebrates Independence Day". AllAfrica.com. 20 March 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2019.
44. ↑ ^{44.0 44.1} "Habib Bourguiba: Father of Tunisia". BBC. 6 April 2000. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/obituaries/703907.stm. 
45. ↑ Black, Ian (13 July 2010). "Amnesty International censures Tunisia over human rights". The Guardian (London). https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/13/amnesty-criticises-tunisia-human-rights. 
46. ↑ "Habib Bourguiba: Father of Tunisia". BBC News. Retrieved 20 July 2018.
47. ↑ "A Coup Is Reported in Tunisia". https://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/07/world/a-coup-is-reported-in-tunisia.html?pagewanted=1. 
48. ↑ Vely, Yannick (23 November 2009). "Ben Ali, sans discussion". ParisMatch.com. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
49. ↑ Ganley, Elaine (17 January 2011). "Tunisians hail fall of ex-leader's corrupt family". Sandiegounion-tribune.com. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 10 December 2022.
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73. ↑ "The Nobel Peace Prize 2015".
74. ↑ "Tunisian President Beji Caid Essebsi dies aged 92" (in en). France 24. 25 July 2019. https://www.france24.com/en/20190725-tunisia-president-essebsi-dies-aged-92. 
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77. ↑ Yee, Vivian (2021-07-26). "Tunisia's Democracy Verges on Dissolution as President Moves to Take Control" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/26/world/middleeast/tunisia-government-dismissed-protests.html. 
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80. ↑ Amara, Tarek; Mcdowall, Angus (2021-09-29). "Tunisian leader names new PM with little experience at crisis moment" (in en). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/tunisian-president-names-romdhane-prime-minister-2021-09-29/. 
81. ↑ "New Tunisian government sworn in". Anadolu Agency. 2021-10-11. Retrieved 2021-10-13.
82. ↑ "Tunisia elected member of African Union security council". Xinhua. 4 February 2022. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/africa/20220204/6e6021e10aa54258a50dc2edf902b6ad/c.html. 
83. ↑ "Tunisia's talks with the IMF: What's at stake?". Al Jazeera. AFP. 18 February 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/18/tunisias-talks-with-the-imf-whats-at-stake. 
84. ↑ "Présentation générale du pays". 2002. Retrieved 6 November 2022.
85. ↑ "Tunisia's talks with the IMF: What's at stake?". Al Jazeera. AFP. 18 February 2022. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/18/tunisias-talks-with-the-imf-whats-at-stake. 
86. ↑ "Visit Tunis, Tunisia". visitafrica.site. Archived from the original on 2021-04-18. Retrieved 2021-04-13.
87. ↑ "Climate of Tunisia". BBC. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
88. ↑ . pp. 1270–. {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
89. ↑ Dinerstein, Eric; et al. (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.