Post-Soviet states

The 15 states may be divided into four subregions. Not included in these categories are the several de facto independent states presently lacking international recognition (read below: Separatist conflicts).

Subregion		Country	Symbols		Capital	Form of government	Independence	Area[11]		Population	Ethnic majority, percent		Density		Notes
			Coat of arms	Flag				km2	mi2		1989	now	p/km2	p/mi2
	Central Asia	Kazakhstan (Republic of Kazakhstan)			Astana	Unitary dominant-party presidential republic	December 16, 1991	2,724,900	1,052,090	19,000,336	39.7%	69.6%	7	18	[12][13]
		Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz Republic)			Bishkek	Unitary presidential republic	August 31, 1991	199,945	77,199	6,663,000	52.4%	73.8%	33	85	[14][15]
		Tajikistan (Republic of Tajikistan)			Dushanbe	Unitary presidential republic under a dictatorship	September 9, 1991	143,100	55,251	9,504,000	62.3%	84.3%	64	166	[16][17]
		Turkmenistan (formerly the Republic of Turkmenistan)			Ashgabat	Unitary presidential republic under a hereditary dictatorship	October 27, 1991	491,210	189,657	6,118,000	72.0%	85.6%	11	28	[18][19]
		Uzbekistan (Republic of Uzbekistan)			Tashkent	Unitary presidential republic	August 31, 1991	444,103	171,469	35,064,893	71.4%	84.4%	76	197	[16][20]
	Total Central Asia							4,003,258	1,545,667	76,350,229	59.6%	79.5%	38.2	99
	Eastern Europe	Belarus (Republic of Belarus)			Minsk	Unitary presidential republic under a dictatorship	December 10, 1991	207,600	80,155	9,349,645	77.9%	84.9%	46	119	[21][22]
		Moldova (Republic of Moldova)			Chișinău	Unitary parliamentary republic	August 27, 1991	33,843	13,067	2,597,100	64.5%	75.1%	79	205	[23][24]
		Russia (Russian Federation)			Moscow	Federal semi-presidential republic	December 12, 1991	17,098,242	6,601,668	146,171,015	81.5%	77.7%	9	23	[25][26][27][28]
		Ukraine			Kyiv	Unitary semi-presidential republic	August 24, 1991	603,700	233,090	41,383,182	72.7%	77.5%	72	186	[29][30]
	Total Eastern Europe							17,943,385	6,927,980	199,500,942	74.2%	78.8%	51.5	133
	Northeastern Europe	Estonia (Republic of Estonia)			Tallinn	Unitary parliamentary republic	May 8, 1990	45,339	17,505	1,330,068	61.5%	69.1%	29	75	[31][32]
		Latvia (Republic of Latvia)			Riga	Unitary parliamentary republic	May 4, 1990	64,562	24,928	1,882,200	52.0%	62.2%	30	78	[16][33]
		Lithuania (Republic of Lithuania)			Vilnius	Unitary semi-presidential republic	March 11, 1990	65,300	25,212	2,786,006	79.6%	84.6%	43	111	[16][34]
	Total Northeastern Europe							175,201	67,645	5,998,274	64.4%	72.0%	34	88
	South Caucasus	Armenia (Republic of Armenia)			Yerevan	Unitary parliamentary republic	September 21, 1991	29,743	11,484	2,963,300	93.3%	98.1%	100	259	[35][36]
		Azerbaijan (Republic of Azerbaijan)			Baku	Unitary semi-presidential republic under a hereditary dictatorship	August 30, 1991	86,600	33,436	10,139,196	82.7%	91.6%	115	298	[37][38]
		Georgia (formerly the Republic of Georgia)			Tbilisi	Unitary parliamentary republic	April 9, 1991	69,700	26,911	3,728,573	70.1%	86.8%	53	137	[16][39]
	Total South Caucasus							186,043	71,832	16,831,069	82.0%	92.2%	89.3	231
Total former Soviet Union								22,307,815	8,613,096	296,582,638	50.6%	44.5%	9	23	[40]

Current leaders

change

Heads of state

change

•  
    Armenia
  Vahagn Khachaturyan
  President of Armenia
•  
    Azerbaijan
  Ilham Aliyev
  President of Azerbaijan
•  
    Belarus
  Alexander Lukashenko
  President of Belarus
•  
    Estonia
  Alar Karis
  President of Estonia
•  
    Georgia
  Salome Zourabichvili
  President of Georgia
•  
    Kazakhstan
  Kassym-Jomart Tokayev
  President of Kazakhstan
•  
    Kyrgyzstan
  Sadyr Dzaparov
  President of Kyrgyzstan
•  
    Latvia
  Egils Levits
  President of Latvia
•  
    Lithuania
  Gitanas Nausėda
  President of Lithuania
•  
    Moldova
  Maia Sandu
  President of Moldova
•  
    Russia
  Vladimir Putin
  President of Russia
•  
    Tajikistan
  Emomali Rahmon
  President of Tajikistan
•  
    Turkmenistan
  Serdar Berdimuhamedow
  President of Turkmenistan^[41]
•  
    Ukraine
  Volodymyr Zelenskyy
  President of Ukraine
•  
    Uzbekistan
  Shavkat Mirziyoyev
  President of Uzbekistan

Heads of government

change

•  
    Armenia
  Nikol Pashinyan
  Prime Minister of Armenia
•  
    Azerbaijan
  Ali Asadov
  Prime Minister of Azerbaijan
•  
    Belarus
  Roman Golovchenko
  Prime Minister of Belarus
•  
    Estonia
  Kaja Kallas
  Prime Minister of Estonia
•  
    Georgia
  Irakli Garibashvili
  Prime Minister of Georgia
•  
    Kazakhstan
  Älihan Smaiylov
  Prime Minister of Kazakhstan
•  
    Kyrgyzstan
  Akylbek Dzaparov
  Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers of Kyrgyzstan
•  
    Latvia
  Krišjānis Kariņš
  Prime Minister of Latvia
•  
    Lithuania
  Ingrida Šimonytė
  Prime Minister of Lithuania
•  
    Moldova
  Natalia Gavrilița
  Prime Minister of Moldova
•  
    Russia
  Mikhail Mishustin
  Prime Minister of Russia
•  
    Tajikistan
  Kokhir Rasulzoda
  Prime Minister of Tajikistan
•  
    Turkmenistan
  Serdar Berdimuhamedow
  President of Turkmenistan^[41]
•  
    Ukraine
  Denys Shmyhal
  Prime Minister of Ukraine
•  
    Uzbekistan
  Abdulla Aripov
  Prime Minister of Uzbekistan

Regarding political freedom in the former Soviet republics, Freedom House's 2021 report listed the following:

• Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania as "free" countries.
• Armenia, Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine were listed as "partly free".
• Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan were listed as "not free".

Similarly, the Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders in 2022 recorded the following for press freedom:^[42]

• Estonia — "Good situation"
• Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova — "Satisfactory situation"
• Armenia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine — "Problematic situation"
• Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan — "Difficult situation"
• Azerbaijan, Belarus, Russia, Turkmenistan — "Very serious situation"

It has been said that several post-Soviet states did not change leadership for decades since their independence, such as Nursultan Nazarbayev in Kazakhstan until his surprise resignation in 2019,^[43] and Islam Karimov in Uzbekistan, until his death in September 2016.^[44] All of these had originally more limited terms but through decrees or referendums prolonged their stay in office (a practice also followed by Presidents Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus and Emomali Rahmon of Tajikistan). Askar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan had served as President since its independence until he was forced to resign as a result of the Kyrgyz revolution of 2005.^[45] Saparmurat Niyazov in Turkmenistan ruled from independence until his death in 2006, creating a personality cult around himself.^[46] His successor, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, has kept a personality cult of his own that has replaced the worshipping of Niyazov.^[47]

The issue of dynastical succession has been another thing affecting the politics of some post-Soviet States. Heydar Aliyev, after creating an extensive and ongoing cult of personality, handed the Presidency of Azerbaijan to his son, Ilham Aliyev. Theories about the children of other leaders in Central Asia being groomed for succession abound.^[48] The participation of Akayev's son and daughter in the 2005 Kyrgyz parliamentary elections boosted fears of dynastic succession being used in Kyrgyzstan as well, and may have contributed to the anti-Akayev climate that led to his overthrow.

Economic, political, national, military, and social problems have all been reasons of separatism in the post-Soviet era. In many cases, problems because of reasons such as ethnic divisions existed before the fall of the Soviet Union, and upon the fall of the union were brought into the open.^[49] Such territories and resulting military conflicts have so far been:

Region		Country name	Coat of arms	Flag	Capital	Independence	Recognition	Area[11]		Population	Density
								km2	mi2		p/km2	p/mi2
	Eastern Europe	Transnistria (Transnistrian Moldavian Republic)			Tiraspol	25 August 1991 (from   Moldova)	Not recognised	4,163	1,607	306,000	73.5	190.4
		Donetsk (Donetsk People's Republic)			Donetsk	12 May 2014 (from   Ukraine)	Limited	7,853	3,032	2,302,444	293.19	759.4
		Luhansk (Luhansk People's Republic)			Luhansk	12 May 2014 (from   Ukraine)		8,377	3,234	1,464,039	174.77	452.7
	South Caucasus	Artsakh (Republic of Artsakh)			Stepanakert	10 December 1991 (from   Azerbaijan)	Not recognised	11,458	4,424	150,932	13.17	34.1
		South Ossetia (Republic of South Ossetia – the State of Alania)			Tskhinval	21 December 1991 (from   Georgia)	Limited	3,900	1,506	53,532	13.73	35.6
		Abkhazia (Republic of Abkhazia)			Sukhumi	23 July 1992 (from   Georgia)		8,660	3,344	254,246	29.36	76.0

•   Transnistria, which is de facto independent from Moldova. It declared independence in 1990, because of its majority Russian-speaking population fearing union with Romania. A ceasefire between Transnistrian forces and Moldovan forces has been in place since 1992.
•   Donetsk People's Republic and   Luhansk People's Republic, states which declared independence from Ukraine in 2014 and were recognized by Russia on 22 February 2022. They were formally annexed by Russia on 30 September 2022.
•   Republic of Artsakh, which is de facto independent from Azerbaijan. Ethnic conflict between Armenians and Azerbaijanis began in 1988, and expanded into a war which lasted until a ceasefire in 1994. Attempts at negotiating a final peace and many bursts of violence have continued since then.^[50]
•   South Ossetia, which is de facto independent from Georgia. The region stated its goal to seek independence in 1990, leading to a conflict which led to a ceasefire in 1992. Separatism became powerful after the election of Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili in 2004, and a referendum in 2006 was in favour of declaring independence. The 2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of South Ossetia's independence.^[51]
•   Abkhazia, which is de facto independent from Georgia. Tensions in the area broke out when Georgia sent in troops in 1992 to control groups who wanted separation. The troops and most of the Georgian and Mingrelian speaking population were forced out in 1993, and the region declared independence in 1999. The 2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of Abkhazia's independence.^[52]

Region		Country name	Coat of arms	Flag	Capital	Independence	Fate	Area[11]		Population	Density
								km2	mi2		p/km2	p/mi2
	Eastern Europe	Gagauzia (Gagauz Republic)			Comrat	19 August 1990 (from   SSR Moldova)	Reincorporated into Moldova as an autonomy in 1994	1,848	714	134,132	72.58	188.0
		Crimea (Republic of Crimea)			Simferopol	17 March 2014 (from   Ukraine)	Joined Russia after a referendum on the next day	26,100	10,077	1,913,731	73.32	189.9
	Central Asia	Tatarstan (Republic of Tatarstan)			Kazan	21 March 1992 (from   Russia)	Reincorporated into Russia after peaceful negotiations in 1994	68,000	26,255	3,786,488	55.68	144.2
	South Caucasus	Chechnya (Chechen Republic of Ichkeria)			Grozny	8 June 1991 (from   Russian SFSR)	Disestablished in 2000 after the Second Chechen War	15,300	5,907	1,103,686	72.14	186.8
		Talysh-Mughan (Толъш-Мъғонә Мохтарә Республикә)			Lankaran	June 1993 (from   Azerbaijan)	Reincorporated into Azerbaijan in August 1993	7,465	2,882	960,000	128.6	333.1

•   Gagauz Republic, declared itself the "Gagauz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic" within Moldova on 12 November 1989, and the "Gagauz Soviet Socialist Republic", independent of Moldova but still within the Soviet Union, on 19 August 1990, but was reintegrated into Moldova as an autonomous region on 23 December 1994.^[53][54][55]
•   Tatarstan, declared itself to be a sovereign state after a referendum on 21 March 1992. Negotiations with Russia led to the signing of a treaty in 1994 which ended Tatarstan's de facto independence, but reserved significant autonomy for the Tatarstan government. In 2002 a new constitution was enacted for Tatarstan which removed the prior constitution's declaration that Tatarstan was a sovereign state.
•   Republic of Crimea. The entire Crimean Peninsula has been outside the control of Ukrainian authorities since late February 2014, when Russian special forces and pro-Russian militias occupied the region.^{[56][57][58][59][60]} In March 2014, a popular referendum in favor of accession to Russia was held in Crimea and Sevastopol, although Ukraine^[61] and most of the international community refused to recognize the vote. The next day, the Republic of Crimea declared independence, and within days Russia absorbed the peninsula. Ukraine continues to claim Crimea as an integral part of its territory.
• Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, where Dzhokhar Dudayev declared independence from Russia in 1991, leading to a violent war between local separatist forces and the Russian army. Russia first invaded in 1994, withdrawing after a deal for increased autonomy was granted in 1996. Tensions have continued in the years since then, and the conflict has spilled over into neighbouring regions such as Dagestan, Ingushetia and North Ossetia–Alania. Russia claims that the situation in Chechnya has normalised.^[62]
•   Talysh-Mughan, declared independence from Azerbaijan, that lasted from June to August 1993.^[63]

Civil wars unrelated to separatist movements have occurred twice in the region:

• The Georgian Civil War between the forces of Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Eduard Shevardnadze. The war ended after Russian forces intervened in support of Shevardnadze's government, which in turn agreed to join the Commonwealth of Independent States.
• The Tajikistani Civil War that lasted between 1992 and 1997.

Since 2003, a number of (largely) peaceful "colour revolutions" have happened in some post-Soviet states after disputed elections, with popular protests bringing into power the former opposition.

• The Rose Revolution in Georgia, leading to the resignation of Eduard Shevardnadze.
• The Orange Revolution in Ukraine, bringing into power Viktor Yushchenko and toppling the pro-Russian leader Viktor Yanukovych.
• The Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, leading to the resignation of Askar Akayev.
• The Velvet Revolution in Armenia, leading to the resignation of Serzh Sargsyan.

• Eastern Bloc

1. ↑ "Managing Conflict in the Former Soviet Union: Russian and American Perspectives". harvard.edu. 30 October 1997. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
2. ↑ On Legal Succession of Ukraine, Articles 7 and 8.
3. ↑ "Про правонаступництво України". Zakon.rada.gov.ua. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
4. ↑ "Раздел СССР. РФ обсудит нулевой вариант долгов СССР, если Украина компенсирует $20 млрд долга‏". Korrespondent.net.
5. ↑ Van Elsuwege, Peter (2008). From Soviet Republics to Eu Member States: A Legal and Political Assessment of the Baltic States' Accession to the EU. Studies in EU External Relations. Vol. 1. BRILL. p. xxii. ISBN 9789004169456.
6. ↑ Smith, David James (2001). Estonia. Routledge. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-415-26728-1.
7. ↑ Lane, David (December 2007). "Post-Communist States and the European Union". Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics. 23 (4): 461–477. doi:10.1080/13523270701674558. ISSN 1352-3279.
8. ↑ Moga, Teodor Lucian; Alexeev, Denis (2013). "Post-Soviet States Between Russia and the EU: Reviving Geopolitical Competition? A Dual Perspective" (PDF). Connections. 13 (1): 41–52. doi:10.11610/Connections.13.1.03. JSTOR 26326349 – via JSTOR.
9. ↑ Jozwiak, Rikard (2019-04-05). "EU, Ex-Soviet Republics To Extend Partnership Beyond 2020". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 2021-08-10.
10. ↑ Danilova, Maria; Dahlburg, John-Thor (2014-03-17). "Crimea declares independence". The Boston Globe. Associated Press. Retrieved 2021-08-10.
11. ↑ ^{11.0 11.1 11.2} Area includes land and water.
12. ↑ Population data as of February 1, 2014.
13. ↑ "The Agency of Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan : Latest data". Archived from the original on 1 August 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
14. ↑ Population data as of 2015.
15. ↑ "Official estimate". Stat.kg. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
16. ↑ ^{16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4} Population data as of January 1, 2014.
17. ↑ "Statistical Agency under President of the Republic of Tajikistan". March 6, 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-03-06.
18. ↑ Population data as of July 1, 2013.
19. ↑ UN estimate
20. ↑ "Государственный комитет Республики Узбекистан по статистике - Демографические данные". Archived from the original on 23 July 2014.
21. ↑ Population data as of July 1, 2014.
22. ↑ "Demographic situation in Half-Year 2014". July 29, 2014. Archived from the original on 2014-07-29.
23. ↑ Population data as of January 1, 2017.
24. ↑ Statistică, Biroul Naţional de. "// Populaţia și procesele demografice". statistica.gov.md.
25. ↑ The Russian Federation technically achieved de facto independence from the Soviet Union after ratifying the Belavezha Accords. After the Almaty Protocol, the RF took over the Soviet Union's UN membership.
26. ↑ Population data as of January 1, 2018.
27. ↑ "Official estimate". Gks.ru. Archived from the original (XLS) on 17 March 2018. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
28. ↑ Includes the Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol, claimed by Ukraine.
29. ↑ Population data as of April 1, 2014.
30. ↑ "Population as of April 1, 2014. Average annual populations January-March 2014". Ukrstat.gov.ua.
31. ↑ Population data as of January 1, 2015.
32. ↑ "Official estimate". Stat.ee. Archived from the original on 23 November 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
33. ↑ "Population - Key Indicators | Latvijas statistika". June 28, 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-06-28.
34. ↑ "Number of persons by month - Database of Indicators - data and statistics". August 19, 2010. Archived from the original on 2010-08-19.
35. ↑ Population data as of 2012.
36. ↑ "Feedback / Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia". Armstat.am. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
37. ↑ Population data as of December 31, 2013.
38. ↑ Samadov, Anar. "2013-cü ildə ölkənin iqtisadi və sosial inkişafının makroiqtisadi göstəriciləri". Stat.gov.az. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
39. ↑ "საქართველოს სტატისტიკის ეროვნული სამსახური". Geostat.ge.
40. ↑ Frank Lorimer. "The Population of the Soviet Union : History and Prospects" (PDF). Marxists.org. Retrieved 5 March 2022.
41. ↑ ^{41.0 41.1} Holds both presidency and executive powers as the Prime Minister of Turkmenistan role was abolished.
42. ↑ "2020 World Press Freedom Index | Reporters Without Borders". Rsf.org. Retrieved 2021-06-12.
43. ↑ "Managed leadership succession in Kazakhstan: A model for gradual departure?". Fiia.fi (in Finnish). 2020-03-16. Retrieved 2021-08-10.
44. ↑ Higgins, Andrew (2018-04-02). "As Authoritarianism Spreads, Uzbekistan Goes the Other Way". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2021-08-10.
45. ↑ "Kyrgyzstan: between democratisation and authoritarianism". Gis-reseau-asie.org. Archived from the original on 2021-08-10. Retrieved 2021-08-10.
46. ↑ agencies, Staff and (2006-12-21). "The personality cult of Turkmenbashi". The Guardian. Retrieved 2021-08-10.
47. ↑ Sattarov, Rafael. "Turkmen Leader's Personality Cult Goes Viral". Carnegie.ru. Archived from the original on 2021-08-10. Retrieved 2021-08-10.
48. ↑ "Kazakhstan flirts with dynastic succession Dariga Nazarbayeva has led a charmed life. / Kazakhstan's Democratic Forces Forum". Archived from the original on 2005-03-12. Retrieved 2005-04-05.
49. ↑ "National Construction, Territorial Separatism and Post-Soviet Geopolitics: The Example of the Transdniester Moldovan Republic" (PDF). Colorado.edu. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
50. ↑ "Regions and territories: Nagorno-Karabakh". BBC News. 10 January 2012.
51. ↑ "Regions and territories: South Ossetia". BBC News. 25 April 2012.
52. ↑ "Regions and territories: Abkhazia". BBC News. 12 March 2012.
53. ↑ Chinn, Jeff; Roper, Steven (1998). "Territorial autonomy in Gagauzia". Nationalities Papers. 26 (1): 87–101. doi:10.1080/00905999808408552. S2CID 154359743. But on 19 August 1990, the Gagauz elite, led by President Stepan Topal and Supreme Soviet Chairperson Mihail Kendighelean, quickly took the next step, declaring Gagauzia to be independent of Moldova and subject only to central Soviet authority
54. ↑ Neukirch, Claus. "Autonomy And Conflict Transformation: The Case Of The Gagauz Territorial Autonomy In The Republic Of Moldova" (PDF). European Centre for Minority Issues. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-14. Retrieved 2014-10-09. On 12 November 1989, a "Gagauz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic" was proclaimed by an assembly in Comrat ... In reaction to the Moldovan declaration of sovereignty, on 19 August 1990 the Gagauz leadership proclaimed a "Gagauz Soviet Socialist Republic", which would be independent from Moldova, but part of the Soviet Union ... on 23 December 1994 the Moldovan Parliament passed the "Law on the Special Juridical Status of Gagauzia (Gagauz-Yeri)" {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
55. ↑ Zabarah, Dareg (2012). "Opportunity structures and group building processes: An institutional analysis of the secession processes in Pridnestrovie and Gagauzia between 1989 and 1991". Soviet and Communist Studies. 45 (1–2). According to the first point of its declaration, the Gagauz Republic "is a sovereign, socialist, soviet and multinational state
56. ↑ Herszenhorn, David; Kramer, Andrew (19 March 2014). "Ukraine Plans to Withdraw Troops From Russia-Occupied Crimea". New York Times. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
57. ↑ Kristina Zakurdaeva; Mikhail Maglov (3 December 2019). "The Crimea Circumvention: How EU Firms Are Sidestepping Sanctions And Making Money On The Peninsula". Current Time TV. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
58. ↑ Carl Schreck (26 February 2019). "From 'Not Us' To 'Why Hide It?': How Russia Denied Its Crimea Invasion, Then Admitted It". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
59. ↑ "Vladimir Putin in TV denial that Russian special forces are in eastern Ukraine". The Daily Telegraph. 17 April 2014. Archived from the original on April 17, 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2014.
60. ↑ "Russian Special Forces Storm Crimea Base". Sky News. 23 March 2014. Retrieved 13 August 2014.
61. ↑ "Ukraine PM rejects Crimea referendum, vows to defend country". CBC News. 6 March 2014. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
62. ↑ "Regions and territories: Chechnya". BBC News. 22 November 2011.
63. ↑ "Azerbaijan in a stir over political prisoner". News.bbc.co.uk. 6 February 2003. Retrieved 21 February 2022.