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on Arab World |
| By: | Fatma Dogruel; A. Suut Dogruel; B. Can Karahasan |
| Abstract: | Regional disparity is one of the important characteristics of Turkish economy. The paper focuses on the explanatory power of market potential on the regional differences in Turkey. Regional divergences in wages and employment are used as the proxies for regional differences. Empirical results reveal that, under various specifications, variation in market potential is an important determinant of regional differences. |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p1601&r=ara |
| By: | Ferhan Gezici |
| Abstract: | The aim of this paper is to analyse interregional disparities and the performance of peripheral/less-developed regions in Turkey regarding the current tools of regional policies. During the planning period in Turkey, two main goals are defined as ‘maximizing national income' on the one hand, and ‘reducing interregional disparities' on the other. In 2002, in order to establish the statistical database harmonized with the regional statistical system of EU, classification of NUTS regions has been completed. After that, the State Planning Organization (SPO) prepared a “Regional Development Strategy, Objectives and Operational Programs†especially for the 10 Level-2 regions which are mostly less developed regions and located in the east, as a road map in order to direct regional development activities in Turkey. Later, Development Agencies in the center of NUTS regions were established to facilitate development objectives of the regions. The aim of this paper is to re-examine the regional disparities under the light of the new process. Mostly the studies on regional disparities considered economic dimension and the results indicate that the distribution of GDP per capita highlights the eastern-spatial peripherality of regional development pattern in Turkey. Previous study of author emphasizes two significant points for regional policies. First, there is evidence of a strengthening of a two-regime spatial division in the country; secondly, there would appear to be little evidence of positive spill-overs from the more-developed to the less-developed parts of the country. Therefore, in this paper, evolutions of regions in terms of their performances will be examined since 1980. The main questions of the paper are: “which regions can be defined as winners and losers?â€Â, “is there any differentiation among less developed regions?â€Â. Furthermore, we try to explore the factors which underlay the aggregate trends of the regions in Turkey, since we know the importance of region-specific policies. The findings of the analyses would be discussed with respect to new regional policies in Turkey. |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p147&r=ara |
| By: | Zeynep Gamze Mert; Gülşen Akman |
| Abstract: | The industry was determined to be “locomotive sector†in the planned development period starting in 1960 in Turkey and long-term targets have been set such as providing economic balance, realizing economic and social development. But after 1980’s, because of the fast industrialization and urbanization some environmental problems emerged in the Turkish cities. So, in industrial development, the Organized Industrial Zones implementations were started to discipline the industrial areas, contribute to planned development of the city and reduce the environmental effects of the industry. Kocaeli is the most industrialized city which is situated in the east and 90 km far from Istanbul in Turkey. Kocaeli has always been a center of attraction for industrial investments due to its position on the road, sea and railway networks connecting Europe to Anatolia and near the major cities as Bursa and Istanbul. Today, there are 13 Organized Industrial Zones in Kocaeli. But these 13 Organized Industrial Zones are not efficient and effective in the industrial development. A lot of industrial establishments have still located in the city. The aim of this study is to determine the profile of the 13 Organized Industrial Zones in Kocaeli by exploring and comparing their locations, sectors, capacities, services and infrastructures. This profile will be helpful to develop the displacement demands and preferences of the industrial establishments and the industrial sustainability in Kocaeli. Keywords: Industrial development, industrial sustainability, Organized Industrial Zones, Turkey, Kocaeli. |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p1137&r=ara |
| By: | Akarcay-Gurbuz, Ayca (Galatasaray University Economic Research Center); Ulus, Mustafa (Galatasaray University Economic Research Center) |
| Abstract: | The nature of the informal sector is a much debated issue. Is working in the informal sector a choice or a constraint? What is the relation between informality and poverty? Theoretically, both are possible, and in this sense, the informal sector bears its own dualism (Fields, 1990, 2005). Consequently, the answer is an empirical issue. In this study, we aim at providing further information about the Turkish labor market using the 2003 and 2008 Household Budget Surveys(HBS) which allows combining income levels with labor force status. We compare income according to five labor force statuses: non-participant, unemployed, worker in the formal sector and worker in the informal sector (agricultural and non-agricultural), and relate findings to poverty. We investigate data to see whether observable heterogeneities in terms of income exist not only between the different statuses, but also within the informal sector. |
| Keywords: | Labor force status; Income disparity; Turkey |
| Date: | 2011–11–07 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ris:giamwp:2011_005&r=ara |
| By: | Elasrag, Hussein |
| Abstract: | The purpose of this paper is to investigate the possibilities and problems for establishment of the corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the Arab countries. The paper explores the nature and concept of CSR, particularly the Arab initiatives. As well as studying the activation of the corporate social responsibility role in the economic and social development of Arab countries. |
| Keywords: | corporate social responsibility ; economic and social development; the Arab countries |
| JEL: | M14 O1 R11 |
| Date: | 2011–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:34422&r=ara |
| By: | François Facchini (CES - Centre d'économie de la Sorbonne - CNRS : UMR8174 - Université Panthéon-Sorbonne - Paris I) |
| Abstract: | This article explains the level of economic freedom in Muslim countries through the theory of institutional path dependency. Islamic countries are generally not free and they have a poor record regarding property rights. To explain these realities we use the institutional history of Muslim countries. We define three steps: the Arab and Ottoman Empires when Islamic law was of great importance, European colonisation, and the contemporary era with its movement towards a revival of Islam. Islamic law is not liberal. This explain why in general Muslim countries are not free. Colonisation radically changed institutional life in the twentieth century. British colonisation proved to be better than did French or Soviet colonisation. This explains why the Persian Gulf countries are freer. The collapse of the Soviet model explains the speed of liberalisation in former socialist countries (such as Albania, Kyrgyz Republic, and Kazakhstan). Nevertheless, the twentieth century was not just the century of Westernisation. It was also the century of the revival of Islam. The article concludes that the history of the twentieth century does not explain the way in which Muslim countries are attracted by the ideal of the Muslim city. The revival of Islamic intellectual innovations and the evolution of Muslim opinion sustain this thesis. Therefore, there is a dependency on the past and on an imagined future. Islam acts, like yesterday, on the world of institutional possibilities. |
| Keywords: | Economic freedom Colonisation Imaginary Islam Property rights |
| Date: | 2011 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:cesptp:hal-00636998&r=ara |
| By: | DIAW, Abdou |
| Abstract: | Abstract The Global Financial Crisis (GFC) has shaken the theoretical and physical foundations of the international financial system. Notwithstanding the severity of the crisis, Islamic financial institutions have shown a relative resilience that has given more credibility to Islamic finance and drawn more attention to its core principles. This paper reviews the writings of Islamic economists on the GFC. Most of the authors reviewed acknowledged the technical mistakes put forth by many conventional analysts as causes of the crisis. However, Islamic economists established a link between those technical mistakes and the flawed system that creates a fertile ground for their occurrence. They, thus, showed how the adoption of the principles of Islamic finance would have prevented most of those mistakes. The way forward, therefore, for both Islamic and conventional finance is, inter alia, greater reliance on risk sharing to inject more discipline in the system; the establishment of a strong and comprehensive regulatory body to safeguard the resilience of the system and the integration of Zakat, Awqaf and other voluntary institutions into the financial system to cater for the financial needs of the poor. |
| Keywords: | Finance islamique; crise financière; secteur bénévole; partage des risques; réglementation |
| Date: | 2011 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:32754&r=ara |
| By: | Ebru Seçkin |
| Abstract: | Advances in information and communication technologies bring along changes in working and employment conditions. Automationed work is moved to distant areas and businesses get elaborate, far from the center and network-based. Another change similar to the disintegration of production process is also seen in services sector. While jobs to develop technologies are left to the developed regions, routine and demanding jobs are transferred to peripheries. This situation brings about a centre-periphery division in structuring employment. One of the businesses that have emerged in this process is call centers. Firms, operating in various sectors, obtain call center service from outsource firms.Today, call centers are mostly located in less developed regions. While call centers first originated in developed regions, due to the increased costs in these regions, lots of firms have made their call service investments in less developed regions. Labor-intensive call centers are regarded as a solution to the unemployment in less developed regions. Within this framework, cities in Turkey, were evaluated according to location factors that call center firms take into account in this paper. The second part, the discussions in the literature are presented. Factors that become effective location decision of call centre firms were cited. In the third part, cities in Turkey, were evaluated according to location factors that call center firms take into account. Cities that were suitable for call center investment has been determined. In point of view of employees in call centers located in five cities in less developed and developed regions differences was determined by ANOVA and correspondence analysis. In the result, suggestions have been offered for location decision of call center based on statistical factors and employees' point of view Keywords:labour market, call centre, Turkey, location factors |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p742&r=ara |
| By: | Melis Oguz; Evren Tok |
| Abstract: | This study focuses on the hegemonic ascendancy of neoliberalism encountering contestations and social unrest in Istanbul (Turkey).Through the case of Sulukule (Istanbul), our aim is to illustrate how gentrification as a neoliberal instrument utilized by a conservative/Islamist local government intervene the urban space not only for economic purposes but also culturally. This study analyzes this process, which went through in Sulukule, a former low-income neighborhood, mainly inhabited by a Gypsy community, sustaining livelihoods through a historically created entertainment culture, which was not welcomed by the conservative political cadres. This study turns the attention to the dynamics generated at the interstices of economy, politics and society, and delivers a tale of resistance and contestation to the uneasy marriage between conservative Islamism and neoliberalism. The concept of gentrification/re-generation is very much employed and referred to the diffusion of neoliberal urban policies in the context of neighborhoods as it is also put forth in this study. The case of Sulukule is a representative case in the Turkish context, especially when the urban and metropolitan transformation of Istanbul is taken into account. The way neighborhoods transform and serve the interests of the market and the capital is similar to the historical functioning of capitalism. Thus, the globalization of gentrification arguments made in the literature should not surprise us given that it is a neoliberal strategy to extract value whenever and wherever possible, in the form of gentrification aiming to revalorize usually decayed spaces or slum areas. In general, what we gather from the literature on gentrification is seen as a quick solution, or in Slater's terms as a savior for cities, its content has been depoliticized, and proposed as a key strategy to approach complex urban problems. They are complex because they are creating both winners and losers, and the irony is that nobody is really keeping track of what is happening to communities who are dislocated because of disruptions through investment in their area. While gentrifiers are shown as the primary actor of this process, the “gentrified†(both the community and the physical space) constitute the other half. |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p201&r=ara |
| By: | Ertan Oktay; Giray Gozgor |
| Abstract: | There is a widespread literature to investigate the relations among increasing trade, economic growth and development; however the relationship between trade and regional development is remained inconsiderable. The aim of this study is, to investigate the interrelationship between trade and regional development in Turkey. Therefore firstly, regional development index is defined for 81 provinces of Turkey for the period from 2002 to 2008. This definition is based on the concept and calculation method of Human Development Index (HDI) of United Nations Development Programme. HDI is taken as a basis because it is a composite measure of education, health, and income. Health and education data used in this paper are Regional Statistics of Turkish Statistical Institute. However, GDP/GDP per capita data are not available for provinces for the period under concern. Several studies obviously show that there is a causality relationship between GDP and energy consumption. Thus, energy consumption statistics are used instead of income data. The seminal approaches of uniform and heterogeneous intra-national space of urban systems (and new economic geography models are considered to be worthwhile. To show the relationship between regional development index and share of volume of trade and between regional development index and trade openness, these approaches are utilized within generalized method of moments procedure in a panel data framework. Accordingly we use three dummy variables as endogenous or exogenous, namely large city, port and border provinces. The empirical findings show that the increases in trade openness are positively associated with future increases in regional development. As a result, large cities have a positive effect in this relationship, while the dummy variables of port and border provinces have not found statistically significant. The link between share of volume of trade and regional development is found out negative, merely when the approach of uniform intra-national space of new economic geography model is considered in our estimation. Furthermore, the results of panel causality tests, the share of volume of trade significantly causes regional development. On the other hand, there is a bilateral causality relationship between regional development and trade openness. |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p890&r=ara |
| By: | Handan Turkoglu; Seda Kundak |
| Abstract: | Urban transformation projects are prepared with the purpose to sanitize decayed areas, to make cities beautiful and to create economic vitality. Since natural hazards threaten large metropolitan areas, urban transformation is pronounced together to mitigate disasters. This approach of urban transformation includes land use decisions related to hazard, risk and vulnerability analysis and to enhance the implementation of building codes respecting the current standards with application of urban transformation methodologies. Ideally urban transformation methodologies include not only physical and economic improvement but also provide social improvement concerning people who live in the area. Urban transformation seems to be the government’s primary tool for disaster mitigation by guiding urban development and improving the quality of housing stock in Turkey. Several attempts since 2005 to pass a bill to institutionalize this controversial strategy finally succeeded in 2010. In June, Law No. 5998, an amendment to Municipal Law No5393 of 2005, expanded item 73 on urban transformation projects to give municipalities the power to initiate Urban Transformation projects to rehabilitate urban areas or to mitigate disaster risk. According to this item in metropolitan areas, district municipalities can implement such projects within their jurisdictions with the approval of the metropolitan municipal council. Therefore Istanbul (Turkey) which is the biggest metropolitan area and waiting a big earthquake in next 30 years will be subjected to several urban transformation projects in the near future. In the paper, the urban transformation related to disaster mitigation approach will be discussed in the case of Istanbul in terms of descriptive analysis and proposals for future development. |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p390&r=ara |
| By: | Yusuf Soner Baskaya; Timur Hulagu |
| Abstract: | Using individual level data from Turkstat Household Labor Force Survey for 2005-2009 period and a variety of parametric and semi-parametric techniques, we test two hypothesis regarding formal and informal labor markets: whether there is a wage gap between formal and informal workers and whether this gap is sensitive to variations in unemployment rates across regions and over time, where the formality of employment is defined with respect to registry status of the individuals to compulsory Social Security System. In line with most studies, the formal workers earn more than informal workers, as suggested by standard wage regressions, conditional on workers' observed individual characteristics. On the other hand, considering the limitations of parametric methods and possibility of misleading results due to the different distributional characteristics of formal and informal workers, we alternatively implement propensity score matching. In contrast with the recent studies for other developing countries showing that the wage gap estimates with propensity score matching is insignificant, we do find large and sizable wage gaps between formal and informal workers in Turkey. While parametric methods give similar estimates for formal-informal wage gap within gender groups, the semi-parametric estimates suggest that the observed formal-informal wage gap is larger among females compared to males. Finally, we show that although the parametric methods, such as wage curve regressions, suggest that wages of informal workers decreases and wages of formal workers do not change with higher unemployment rates, the semi-parametric methods show that these gaps are insensitive to unemployment rate variations across regions or over time. Keywords: Formal/Informal Employment, Wage Gap, Propensity Score Matching, Regional Labor Markets. JEL classification: C14; J30; J42; J60; O17 |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p409&r=ara |
| By: | Senay Oguztimur; Metin Canci |
| Abstract: | Urban logistics might be called as city logistics, urban freight transportation is a specific subsection of logistics concept. Urban logistics is generally based on logistics and freight activities in urban areas and focus on these activities’ linkage with urban areas. Urban logistics issues might be evaluated under seven subtitles: These are respectively: logistics activities regarding with citizen subsistence, energy supply, industrial manufacturing, construction-maintenance activities, parcel service, waste cycle and emergency cases activities in urban areas. Urban logistics is a concept that has to deal with social, cultural and environmental issues besides economic subjects. All these subjects have to base on sustainability. Urban logistics covers such a wide range that consist logistics service providers and their consumers, public sector, various sector institutions and chambers. While realizing this role, citizens as participants give a direction to planning process regarding with logistics issues. In order to ensure sustainable urban logistics, urban master plans approach matters. The location of urban logistics functions need to be approached with multidisciplinary viewpoint such as spatial accession, transport networks, interaction with the urban. This study consists of urban logistics issues by the overview of Istanbul Master Plan. Istanbul has great economic capacities that achieve more than half of the whole Turkey. Istanbul is known for its vast contributions to the Turkish economy. Istanbul is the most populated and most industrialized city of Turkey which achieves more than half of whole country’s economic production. Due to this specific case, Istanbul has a vast number of logistics problems. In this planning experience, as a growing sector, logistics had been considered for the first time. Key words: City logistics, Master Plan, Sustainable Urban Plan |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p830&r=ara |
| By: | Tuba Cekic |
| Abstract: | Social capital is a common concept for both describing and understanding economical, political and social wellbeing of community. Although it has been defined by economists and sociologists; social capital concept is also highlighted in regional development strategies. Accordingly, assessing the role of social capital in regional development and the impact of social capital to economic growth by means of empirical and theoretical studies has been an important issue in the literature. The relation between social capital and regional economic development in Turkey, as a developing country, has been put forth as the main theme of this paper. The paper aims to provide an overview of the concept of social capital for regional development and discuss social capital in terms of social participation depending on the work of Robert Putnam. Although interregional disparities in Turkey have been studied by many academicians, revealing their relationship with participation is rather new. Searching for this relationship, indicators of social participation is converted to social capital index and regression analysis have been used to explore the relation between social capital and regional economic development. During the construction of indicies, principal component analysis and factor analysis is used to determine the weights of each indicator. Thus, this paper evaluates the social participation in NUTS II level regions in order to foreseen regional disparities in the context of economic development. At this point it has been asserted that social capital in regions both explains and is a result of regional economic development. |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p184&r=ara |
| By: | Koç Ercan; Gözdem Aysu; Ayşe Nur Ökten; Betül Şengezer |
| Abstract: | Turkey, during nearly in a hundred years of development period have lived a process where population and income in rural areas have decreased but on the contrary urban and coastal areas have developed. Now, one of every four people live in urban settlements. During this process, the living environment and the quality of life has negatively effected by the concentration of the urban areas not as the planning has foreseen, the concretion of urban surfaces and insufficient reinforcement area problems. The naturalness of the rural areas, product diversity, open space, the relations of production, rural culture and lifestyle has become longed qualifications. Büyükmenderes basin with its nature of accessibility, integrity of coastal-plain-mountain where combined, different geographies, naturalness, rich fauna and flora, the sea, lakes, rivers, hot springs, special products, historical values and cultural diversity has a special place. At the same time the country's most important coastal tourism are the focus of the surface of the rear axle Ku?adas?-Bodrum. Increase in the density of urban settlements, inadequate reinforcement measures and the loss of legibility, rural poverty and abandonment of settlements inhabited by the problems of this scope requires new improvements and the development of new principles of sustainability. In this context Büyükmenderes basin is in great potential. To participate in the production process, nature sports facilities, health tourism through thermal resources, cultural tourism, access to a rich diversity of fauna and flora, opportunities provided by sea, lake, river sources, the local culture, lifestyle, recognition of settling relations, accommodation with local properties for the region will take different roles at all levels and contains programmability. In this study, such urban settlements like Aydin, Soke specified in the above content, for Büyükmenderes basin development and promotion strategies will be examined for the integrity of coastal tourism, culture, agriculture and a proposal of a model will be developed. |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p1837&r=ara |
| By: | Senem Kozaman; Betul Sengezer; Emrah Altinok |
| Abstract: | This article aims to follow the application of fuzzy approach in the analysis of urban complex problems; classifying urban problems according to different criteria. It proposes a methodology to combine different dimensions of quality of life, with the economic (income, employment), social (education) physical (health and infrastructure) indicators into Quality of Life Index (QLI) by applying Totally Fuzzy Analysis (TFA). The objective of the present work is to identify, based on survey data of Söke settlement in Turkey, to define the sub zones according to life quality indicators. The sample for the survey is designed to provide representative samples of private households in Söke. A stratified random sample is selected such that every sampling unit in the population has an equal probability of being selected for the sample. From the population of 14582 housing units in Söke, a sample size of 366 was chosen. As a result, 366 households were interviewed without missing. The indicators that have been used for the fuzzy model consist of three main blocks. The first one in the indicators that describe development of socio-economic system is the economic indicators such as urban poverty (income and expenditures), property ownership, employment and attributes of the labor force. The second one is physical indicators that consist of availability of residential services, housing density and the quality of housing units. The third one is the social indicators which can be described as household profile, cultural expenditures and life patterns. The goal is achieved by applying a new and straightforward method of GIS and fuzzy logic. This methodology was applied in the study area and the results presented in the form of tables and maps. The results revealed that there are spatial, social and economic disparities in some parts of the area. The findings indicate that the fuzzy technics are powerful analytic tools for helping planners define urban complex problems and to see relations between social, economic and physical factors. |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p1734&r=ara |
| By: | Tuba Cekic; Ela Yazici |
| Abstract: | Istanbul, the largest metropolitan area in Turkey with a population of over 15 million inhabitants, lies close to major and active fault lines and has been previously hit by fatal earthquakes several times. Facing a high seismic risk as forecasted in a number of studies; Istanbul is particularly vulnerable due to the high density of old housing areas in the city center. Although there is a great body of knowledge in the literature focusing on the seismic risk of Istanbul and possible scenarios to strengthen the capacity for emergency preparedness in the event of future earthquakes, the attitudes and perceptions of housing investors living under the threat of the earthquake is yet to be explored. This study is an attempt to address this gap and aims to investigate the relationship between the location of the housing investment and perception of earthquake risk of the investors. Data was collected by means of a questionnaire from 117 participants, who made an investment in housing in Istanbul since 1999 Kocaeli earthquake. ArcGIS is used to indicate the spatial distribution of investment and the results provide empirical evidence of how spatial distribution of housing investment differs depending on the earthquake risk perception of the investors. |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p194&r=ara |
| By: | Elif Ornek Ozden; Ebru Seckin; Senem Kozaman |
| Abstract: | Especially after 1990’s, important results have emerged with the rapid transformation process in the world by the concept of globalization. It is emphasized that cities are the center of spatial transformation where the globalization mostly effected. The economic and technological developments have caused the fluidity of capital in this manner cities have to bring out their potentials more than ever to attract the capital and disparities reveals in the pattern of urban hierarchy. The presence of cities depends on the renewal of existing potentials according to the changing conditions of today. In this process, many cities around the world, especially with economic, spatial, environmental advantages come forward in the international arena. While the competition between cities significantly increased, the cities that cannot keep up with varying conditions are destined to lose. The context of this paper is about the effects of the globalization and changes in the economic structure to urban hierarchy which is examined in the Aydın Providence of Turkey. Aydın is a developed province of Aegean Region which is situated in the seaside with its natural amenities that has to be protected. There are sub-regions which have different identities stands out in the province. The settlements in the inner sides and the coast sides differentiate in social, economic, demographic characteristics. While the population of settlements in the coast side of the province are increased as a result of investments and tourism potentials, the population of inner settlements which are based on agricultural economies, are decreased. Consequently, a dual structure is present in the very same region; we can see developing and an under developed sub-regions. The material example of this structure can be observed in two different districts of Aydın; Kuşadası which is situated in the seaside; Söke which is situated in the inner side. At this point, the basic problematic of this paper is about the positive-negative effects of rapid development of certain areas. As a result, in the context of emerging problems, the two settlements which are located in close proximity are examined and the concept of compromising cities suggested instead of competitive cities. |
| Date: | 2011–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwrsa:ersa11p1665&r=ara |