[go: up one dir, main page]
IDEAS home Printed from https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/enepol/v159y2021ics0301421521005176.html
   My bibliography  Save this article

The impact of carbon emission trading schemes on urban-rural income inequality in China: A multi-period difference-in-differences method

Author

Listed:
  • Yu, Fan
  • Xiao, De
  • Chang, Meng-Shiuh
Abstract
This study evaluates the impacts of China's pilot carbon ETS on urban-rural income inequality. Based on panel data of 273 cities in China from 2010 to 2018, we apply the multiple periods difference-in-differences method in a quasi-natural experiment setting. The results show that carbon ETS can significantly reduce the level of urban-rural income inequality by 8.11% in China. More specifically, the carbon ETS is associated with a 10.23% decrease in income inequality for cities piloted in 2014, but this effect is insignificant for cities piloted in 2017. In addition, the effect of carbon ETS does not noticeably degenerate with the length of exposure to the treatment. Further analysis indicates that the ETS has stronger effects on reducing urban-rural income inequality for the cities with higher CO2 emissions and for those with higher per capita GDP. These findings imply that the implementation of carbon ETS is beneficial for reducing income equality in China and the impact of carbon ETS on income inequality is heterogeneous for different levels of CO2 emissions and different levels of per capita GDP.

Suggested Citation

  • Yu, Fan & Xiao, De & Chang, Meng-Shiuh, 2021. "The impact of carbon emission trading schemes on urban-rural income inequality in China: A multi-period difference-in-differences method," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 159(C).
    • Handle: RePEc:eee:enepol:v:159:y:2021:i:c:s0301421521005176
    DOI: 10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112652
    as

    Download full text from publisher

    File URL: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421521005176
    Download Restriction: Full text for ScienceDirect subscribers only
    File URL: https://libkey.io/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112652?utm_source=ideas
    LibKey link: if access is restricted and if your library uses this service, LibKey will redirect you to where you can use your library subscription to access this item
    ---><---

    As the access to this document is restricted, you may want to search for a different version of it.

    References listed on IDEAS

    as
    1. Wright, Austin L. & Sonin, Konstantin & Driscoll, Jesse & Wilson, Jarnickae, 2020. "Poverty and economic dislocation reduce compliance with COVID-19 shelter-in-place protocols," Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, Elsevier, vol. 180(C), pages 544-554.
    2. Sylwester, Kevin, 2002. "Can education expenditures reduce income inequality?," Economics of Education Review, Elsevier, vol. 21(1), pages 43-52, February.
    3. Mathur, Aparna & Morris, Adele C., 2014. "Distributional effects of a carbon tax in broader U.S. fiscal reform," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 66(C), pages 326-334.
    4. Glaeser, Edward L. & Kahn, Matthew E., 2010. "The greenness of cities: Carbon dioxide emissions and urban development," Journal of Urban Economics, Elsevier, vol. 67(3), pages 404-418, May.
    5. Fernando Broner & Paula Bustos & Vasco Carvalho, 2011. "Sources of comparative advantage in polluting industries," Economics Working Papers 1331, Department of Economics and Business, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, revised Dec 2019.
    6. Harry Clarke, 2011. "Some Basic Economics of Carbon Taxes," Australian Economic Review, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research, vol. 44(2), pages 123-136, June.
    7. Clément de Chaisemartin & Xavier D'Haultfœuille, 2020. "Two-Way Fixed Effects Estimators with Heterogeneous Treatment Effects," American Economic Review, American Economic Association, vol. 110(9), pages 2964-2996, September.
    8. Antonelli, Cristiano & Gehringer, Agnieszka, 2013. "Innovation and Income Inequality," Department of Economics and Statistics Cognetti de Martiis LEI & BRICK - Laboratory of Economics of Innovation "Franco Momigliano", Bureau of Research in Innovation, Complexity and Knowledge, Collegio 201311, University of Turin.
    9. Chang, Kai & Zhang, Chao & Chang, Hao, 2016. "Emissions reduction allocation and economic welfare estimation through interregional emissions trading in China: Evidence from efficiency and equity," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 113(C), pages 1125-1135.
    10. Dinan, Terry & Rogers, Diane Lim, 2002. "Distributional Effects of Carbon AllowanceTrading: How Government Decisions Determine Winners and Losers," National Tax Journal, National Tax Association;National Tax Journal, vol. 55(2), pages 199-221, June.
    11. Bureau, Benjamin, 2011. "Distributional effects of a carbon tax on car fuels in France," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 33(1), pages 121-130, January.
    12. Jones, Charles I & Williams, John C, 2000. "Too Much of a Good Thing? The Economics of Investment in R&D," Journal of Economic Growth, Springer, vol. 5(1), pages 65-85, March.
    13. Kara, M. & Syri, S. & Lehtila, A. & Helynen, S. & Kekkonen, V. & Ruska, M. & Forsstrom, J., 2008. "The impacts of EU CO2 emissions trading on electricity markets and electricity consumers in Finland," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 30(2), pages 193-211, March.
    14. Andrés Rodríguez‐Pose & Vassilis Tselios, 2009. "Education And Income Inequality In The Regions Of The European Union," Journal of Regional Science, Wiley Blackwell, vol. 49(3), pages 411-437, August.
    15. Dumitrescu, Elena-Ivona & Hurlin, Christophe, 2012. "Testing for Granger non-causality in heterogeneous panels," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 29(4), pages 1450-1460.
    16. Jeffrey M Wooldridge, 2010. "Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data," MIT Press Books, The MIT Press, edition 2, volume 1, number 0262232588, April.
    17. Parry, Ian W. H., 2004. "Are emissions permits regressive?," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 47(2), pages 364-387, March.
    18. Thorsten Beck & Ross Levine & Alexey Levkov, 2010. "Big Bad Banks? The Winners and Losers from Bank Deregulation in the United States," Journal of Finance, American Finance Association, vol. 65(5), pages 1637-1667, October.
    19. Don Fullerton, 2008. "Distributional Effects of Environmental and Energy Policy: An Introduction," NBER Working Papers 14241, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    20. Liu, Yu & Tan, Xiu-Jie & Yu, Yang & Qi, Shao-Zhou, 2017. "Assessment of impacts of Hubei Pilot emission trading schemes in China – A CGE-analysis using TermCO2 model," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 189(C), pages 762-769.
    21. Andrew Goodman-Bacon, 2018. "Difference-in-Differences with Variation in Treatment Timing," NBER Working Papers 25018, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
    22. Florian Landis and Peter Heindl, 2019. "Renewable Energy Targets in the Context of the EU ETS: Whom do They Benefit Exactly?," The Energy Journal, International Association for Energy Economics, vol. 0(Number 6).
    23. Du, Yimeng & Takeuchi, Kenji, 2019. "Can climate mitigation help the poor? Measuring impacts of the CDM in rural China," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 95(C), pages 178-197.
    24. Hering, Laura & Poncet, Sandra, 2014. "Environmental policy and exports: Evidence from Chinese cities," Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 68(2), pages 296-318.
    25. Angus C. Chu, 2010. "Effects of Patent Policy on Income and Consumption Inequality in a R&D Growth Model," Southern Economic Journal, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 77(2), pages 336-350, October.
    26. Lessmann, Christian, 2013. "Foreign direct investment and regional inequality: A panel data analysis," China Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 24(C), pages 129-149.
    27. Georg Zachmann & Anta Ndoye & Jan Abrell, 2011. "Assessing the impact of the EU ETS using firm level data," Working Papers 579, Bruegel.
    28. Rausch, Sebastian & Metcalf, Gilbert E. & Reilly, John M., 2011. "Distributional impacts of carbon pricing: A general equilibrium approach with micro-data for households," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 33(S1), pages 20-33.
    29. Da Zhang & Marco Springmann & Valerie J. Karplus, 2016. "Equity and emissions trading in China," Climatic Change, Springer, vol. 134(1), pages 131-146, January.
    30. Kami Richmond & Russell E. Triplett, 2018. "ICT and income inequality: a cross-national perspective," International Review of Applied Economics, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 32(2), pages 195-214, March.
    31. Giovanni Marin & Marianna Marino & Claudia Pellegrin, 2018. "The Impact of the European Emission Trading Scheme on Multiple Measures of Economic Performance," Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 71(2), pages 551-582, October.
    32. Giovanni Marin & Marianna Marino & Claudia Pellegrin, 2018. "The impact of the European Union Emission Trading Scheme on Multiple Measures of Economic Performance," Post-Print hal-01768870, HAL.
    33. Berthe, Alexandre & Elie, Luc, 2015. "Mechanisms explaining the impact of economic inequality on environmental deterioration," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 116(C), pages 191-200.
    34. Yang, Mian & Hou, Yaru & Fang, Chao & Duan, Hongbo, 2020. "Constructing energy-consuming right trading system for China's manufacturing industry in 2025," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 144(C).
    35. Arief Yusuf & Budy Resosudarmo, 2015. "On the distributional impact of a carbon tax in developing countries: the case of Indonesia," Environmental Economics and Policy Studies, Springer;Society for Environmental Economics and Policy Studies - SEEPS, vol. 17(1), pages 131-156, January.
    36. Brenner, Mark & Riddle, Matthew & Boyce, James K., 2007. "A Chinese sky trust?: Distributional impacts of carbon charges and revenue recycling in China," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 35(3), pages 1771-1784, March.
    37. Li, Baoxi & Cheng, Shixiong & Xiao, De, 2020. "The impacts of environmental pollution and brain drain on income inequality," China Economic Review, Elsevier, vol. 62(C).
    38. Mo, Jian-Lei & Agnolucci, Paolo & Jiang, Mao-Rong & Fan, Ying, 2016. "The impact of Chinese carbon emission trading scheme (ETS) on low carbon energy (LCE) investment," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 89(C), pages 271-283.
    39. Yan, Yaxue & Zhang, Xiaoling & Zhang, Jihong & Li, Kai, 2020. "Emissions trading system (ETS) implementation and its collaborative governance effects on air pollution: The China story," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 138(C).
    40. Brantly Callaway & Pedro H. C. Sant'Anna, 2018. "Difference-in-Differences with Multiple Time Periods and an Application on the Minimum Wage and Employment," DETU Working Papers 1804, Department of Economics, Temple University.
    41. Athey, Susan & Imbens, Guido W., 2022. "Design-based analysis in Difference-In-Differences settings with staggered adoption," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 226(1), pages 62-79.
    42. Wier, Mette & Birr-Pedersen, Katja & Jacobsen, Henrik Klinge & Klok, Jacob, 2005. "Are CO2 taxes regressive? Evidence from the Danish experience," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 52(2), pages 239-251, January.
    43. Zhou, P. & Zhang, L. & Zhou, D.Q. & Xia, W.J., 2013. "Modeling economic performance of interprovincial CO2 emission reduction quota trading in China," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 112(C), pages 1518-1528.
    44. Li, Hongqi & Lu, Yue & Zhang, Jun & Wang, Tianyi, 2013. "Trends in road freight transportation carbon dioxide emissions and policies in China," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 57(C), pages 99-106.
    45. Crossland, Jarrod & Li, Bin & Roca, Eduardo, 2013. "Is the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) informationally efficient? Evidence from momentum-based trading strategies," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 109(C), pages 10-23.
    46. Hu, Yucai & Ren, Shenggang & Wang, Yangjie & Chen, Xiaohong, 2020. "Can carbon emission trading scheme achieve energy conservation and emission reduction? Evidence from the industrial sector in China," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 85(C).
    47. Heerink, Nico & Mulatu, Abay & Bulte, Erwin, 2001. "Income inequality and the environment: aggregation bias in environmental Kuznets curves," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 38(3), pages 359-367, September.
    48. Lin, Boqiang & Jia, Zhijie, 2020. "Is emission trading scheme an opportunity for renewable energy in China? A perspective of ETS revenue redistributions," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 263(C).
    49. Wang, Qian & Hubacek, Klaus & Feng, Kuishuang & Wei, Yi-Ming & Liang, Qiao-Mei, 2016. "Distributional effects of carbon taxation," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 184(C), pages 1123-1131.
    50. Dinan, Terry & Rogers, Diane Lim, 2002. "Distributional Effects of Carbon AllowanceTrading: How Government Decisions Determine Winners and Losers," National Tax Journal, National Tax Association, vol. 55(N. 2), pages 199-221, June.
    51. Li, Pei & Lu, Yi & Wang, Jin, 2016. "Does flattening government improve economic performance? Evidence from China," Journal of Development Economics, Elsevier, vol. 123(C), pages 18-37.
    52. Changkyu Choi, 2006. "Does foreign direct investment affect domestic income inequality?," Applied Economics Letters, Taylor & Francis Journals, vol. 13(12), pages 811-814.
    53. Kosuke Imai & In Song Kim, 2019. "When Should We Use Unit Fixed Effects Regression Models for Causal Inference with Longitudinal Data?," American Journal of Political Science, John Wiley & Sons, vol. 63(2), pages 467-490, April.
    54. Venmans, Frank, 2012. "A literature-based multi-criteria evaluation of the EU ETS," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 16(8), pages 5493-5510.
    Full references (including those not matched with items on IDEAS)

    Citations

    Citations are extracted by the CitEc Project, subscribe to its RSS feed for this item.
    as


    Cited by:

    1. Chaofeng Lyu & Shuxin Deng & Zewei Dai, 2023. "Emissions Trading Systems, Structure Adjustment and Air Pollution Reduction: Evidence from Enterprises in China," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(7), pages 1-20, April.
    2. Chen, Shuyang & Wang, Can, 2023. "Inequality impacts of ETS penalties: A case study on the recent Chinese nationwide ETS market," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 173(C).
    3. Yu, Fan & Zheng, Shilin & Zheng, Shuhong & Guo, Chenhao, 2024. "Does carbon ETS affect the distribution of labor's slice of the factor income pie? From the low carbon transition perspective," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 134(C).
    4. Xiao, De & Yu, Fan & Guo, Chenhao, 2023. "The impact of China's pilot carbon ETS on the labor income share: Based on an empirical method of combining PSM with staggered DID," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 124(C).
    5. Bettarelli, Luca & Furceri, Davide & Pizzuto, Pietro & Shakoor, Nadia, 2024. "Climate change policies and income inequality," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 191(C).
    6. Xiaoke Zhu & Qiyun Deng & Shuo Zhang, 2024. "Toward low-carbon transition: Does carbon regulation matter for spatial development inequality?," Economic Change and Restructuring, Springer, vol. 57(6), pages 1-29, December.
    7. Lyu, Chaofeng & Xie, Zhe & Li, Zhi, 2022. "Market supervision, innovation offsets and energy efficiency: Evidence from environmental pollution liability insurance in China," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 171(C).
    8. Lei Su & Wenjiao Yu & Zhongxuan Zhou, 2023. "Global Trends of Carbon Finance: A Bibliometric Analysis," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 15(8), pages 1-21, April.
    9. Hao, Yunping & Zhang, Bing, 2024. "The impact of digital financial usage on resident’s income inequality in China: An empirical analysis based on CHFS data," Journal of Asian Economics, Elsevier, vol. 91(C).
    10. Mengjia Zhen & Junlan Yu & Siyi Chen & Ning Wang & Zhigang Chen, 2023. "Evaluating the Impact of County-to-District Transformation on Urban Residential Land Supply: A Multi-Period Difference-in-Differences Model Analysis," Land, MDPI, vol. 12(6), pages 1-20, May.
    11. Dong, Zhaoyingzi & Xia, Chuyu & Fang, Kai & Zhang, Weiwen, 2022. "Effect of the carbon emissions trading policy on the co-benefits of carbon emissions reduction and air pollution control," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 165(C).
    12. Ya-Nan Zhao & Chien-Chiang Lee, 2024. "How does industrial relocation affect carbon emissions? Evidence from Chinese cities," Economic Change and Restructuring, Springer, vol. 57(6), pages 1-33, December.
    13. He, Ling-Yun & Chen, Kun-Xian, 2023. "Does China's regional emission trading scheme lead to carbon leakage? Evidence from conglomerates," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 175(C).
    14. Zhou, Yutao & Li, Zhenfu & Duan, Wei & Deng, Zhao, 2023. "The impact of provincial port integration on port efficiency: Empirical evidence from China's Coastal Provinces," Journal of Transport Geography, Elsevier, vol. 108(C).
    15. Zhao, Congyu & Jia, Rongwen & Dong, Kangyin, 2023. "Does financial inclusion achieve the dual dividends of narrowing carbon inequality within cities and between cities? Empirical evidence from China," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 195(C).
    16. Zhang, Weiwei & Xi, Bin, 2024. "The effect of carbon emission trading on enterprises’ sustainable development performance: A quasi-natural experiment based on carbon emission trading pilot in China," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 185(C).
    17. Li, Kai & Tan, Xiujie & Yan, Yaxue & Jiang, Dalin & Qi, Shaozhou, 2022. "Directing energy transition toward decarbonization: The China story," Energy, Elsevier, vol. 261(PA).
    18. Li, Xitong & He, Peiming & Liao, Honglin & Liu, Jindan & Chen, Litai, 2024. "Does network infrastructure construction reduce urban–rural income inequality? Based on the “Broadband China” policy," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Elsevier, vol. 205(C).
    19. Nana Jiang & Wei Jiang & Haibo Chen, 2023. "Innovative urban design for low‐carbon sustainable development: Evidence from China's innovative city pilots," Sustainable Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 31(2), pages 698-715, April.

    Most related items

    These are the items that most often cite the same works as this one and are cited by the same works as this one.
    1. Nils Ohlendorf & Michael Jakob & Jan Christoph Minx & Carsten Schröder & Jan Christoph Steckel, 2021. "Distributional Impacts of Carbon Pricing: A Meta-Analysis," Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 78(1), pages 1-42, January.
    2. Nils Ohlendorf & Michael Jakob & Jan Christoph Minx & Carsten Schröder & Jan Christoph Steckel, 2018. "Distributional Impacts of Climate Mitigation Policies - a Meta-Analysis," Discussion Papers of DIW Berlin 1776, DIW Berlin, German Institute for Economic Research.
    3. Xiao, De & Yu, Fan & Guo, Chenhao, 2023. "The impact of China's pilot carbon ETS on the labor income share: Based on an empirical method of combining PSM with staggered DID," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 124(C).
    4. Yu, Fan & Zheng, Shilin & Zheng, Shuhong & Guo, Chenhao, 2024. "Does carbon ETS affect the distribution of labor's slice of the factor income pie? From the low carbon transition perspective," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 134(C).
    5. Saelim, Supawan, 2019. "Carbon tax incidence on household consumption: Heterogeneity across socio-economic factors in Thailand," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 159-174.
    6. Kirchner, Mathias & Sommer, Mark & Kratena, Kurt & Kletzan-Slamanig, Daniela & Kettner-Marx, Claudia, 2019. "CO2 taxes, equity and the double dividend – Macroeconomic model simulations for Austria," Energy Policy, Elsevier, vol. 126(C), pages 295-314.
    7. Wang, Qian & Hubacek, Klaus & Feng, Kuishuang & Guo, Lin & Zhang, Kun & Xue, Jinjun & Liang, Qiao-Mei, 2019. "Distributional impact of carbon pricing in Chinese provinces," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 81(C), pages 327-340.
    8. de Bruin, Kelly & Yakut, Aykut Mert, 2024. "Efficiency–equity trade-off in the Irish carbon tax: A CGE investigation of mixed revenue recycling schemes," Economic Modelling, Elsevier, vol. 134(C).
    9. Moritz A. Drupp & Ulrike Kornek & Jasper N. Meya & Lutz Sager, 2021. "Inequality and the Environment: The Economics of a Two-Headed Hydra," CESifo Working Paper Series 9447, CESifo.
    10. Gonçalves, S. & Rodrigues, T.P. & Chagas, A.L.S., 2020. "The impact of wind power on the Brazilian labor market," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Elsevier, vol. 128(C).
    11. Liu, Jing-Yue & Zhang, Yue-Jun, 2021. "Has carbon emissions trading system promoted non-fossil energy development in China?," Applied Energy, Elsevier, vol. 302(C).
    12. Kurt Schmidheiny & Sebastian Siegloch, 2023. "On event studies and distributed‐lags in two‐way fixed effects models: Identification, equivalence, and generalization," Journal of Applied Econometrics, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 38(5), pages 695-713, August.
    13. Alvarez, Maximiliano, 2019. "Distributional effects of environmental taxation: An approximation with a meta-regression analysis," Economic Analysis and Policy, Elsevier, vol. 62(C), pages 382-401.
    14. Tram T.H. Nguyen and Wonho Song, 2021. "Carbon Pricing and Income Inequality: An Empirical Investigation," Journal of Economic Development, Chung-Ang Unviersity, Department of Economics, vol. 46(2), pages 155-182, June.
    15. Athey, Susan & Imbens, Guido W., 2022. "Design-based analysis in Difference-In-Differences settings with staggered adoption," Journal of Econometrics, Elsevier, vol. 226(1), pages 62-79.
    16. Moz-Christofoletti, Maria Alice & Pereda, Paula Carvalho, 2021. "Winners and losers: the distributional impacts of a carbon tax in Brazil," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 183(C).
    17. Bai, Caiquan & Liu, Hangjuan & Zhang, Rongjie & Feng, Chen, 2023. "Blessing or curse? Market-driven environmental regulation and enterprises' total factor productivity: Evidence from China's carbon market pilots," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 117(C).
    18. Maria Alice Moz-Christofoletti & Paula Carvalho Pereda, 2021. "Winners and losers: the distributional impact of a carbon tax in Brazil," Working Papers, Department of Economics 2021_08, University of São Paulo (FEA-USP).
    19. Yang, Lisha & Li, Yutianhao & Liu, Hongxun, 2021. "Did carbon trade improve green production performance? Evidence from China," Energy Economics, Elsevier, vol. 96(C).
    20. You-Yi Guo & Jin-Xu Lin & Shih-Mo Lin, 2022. "The Distribution Effects of a Carbon Tax on Urban and Rural Households in China," Sustainability, MDPI, vol. 14(13), pages 1-15, June.

    Corrections

    All material on this site has been provided by the respective publishers and authors. You can help correct errors and omissions. When requesting a correction, please mention this item's handle: RePEc:eee:enepol:v:159:y:2021:i:c:s0301421521005176. See general information about how to correct material in RePEc.

    If you have authored this item and are not yet registered with RePEc, we encourage you to do it here. This allows to link your profile to this item. It also allows you to accept potential citations to this item that we are uncertain about.

    If CitEc recognized a bibliographic reference but did not link an item in RePEc to it, you can help with this form .

    If you know of missing items citing this one, you can help us creating those links by adding the relevant references in the same way as above, for each refering item. If you are a registered author of this item, you may also want to check the "citations" tab in your RePEc Author Service profile, as there may be some citations waiting for confirmation.

    For technical questions regarding this item, or to correct its authors, title, abstract, bibliographic or download information, contact: Catherine Liu (email available below). General contact details of provider: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/enpol .

    Please note that corrections may take a couple of weeks to filter through the various RePEc services.

    IDEAS is a RePEc service. RePEc uses bibliographic data supplied by the respective publishers.