Neolitikum Eropa
Neolitikum Eropa merupakan sebuah zaman Neolitikum yang hadir di Eropa kira-kira antara tahun 7000 SM (perkiraan waktu masyarakat pertanian pertama di Yunani) dan skt. 1700 SM (awal zaman perunggu di Skandinavia). Selama era ini, pertanian dan peternakan menyebar ke seluruh migrasi dan pertukaran, serta diadopsi oleh berbagai komunitas yang tinggal di Eropa, tanpa penyamarataan karena masih dalam zaman Besi yang masyarakatnya secara eksklusif terlibat dalam perburuan dan pengumpulan, khususnya di Eropa Utara.[1]
Perkembangan metalurgi tembaga di Eropa begitu bertahap dan perubahan gaya hidup dan organisasi sosial sangat lemah sehingga istilah « Zaman Tembaga » atau « Kalkolitikum » cenderung digantikan oleh ekspresi prasejarah « Neolitikum Akhir » atau « Neolitikum final ». Zaman Neolitikum berakhir dengan pengembangan dan penyamarataan metalurgi perunggu, yang mendefinisikan Zaman Perunggu, namun prosesi ini dimulai di Yunani dan Balkan pada awal milenium ketiga Sebelum Masehi, yang berlangsung secara bertahap dan sesuai dengan modalitas yang berbeda sesuai dengan wilayah Eropa.
Daftar kebudayaan dan situs
[sunting | sunting sumber]
- Mesolitikum
- Kebudayaan Lepenski Vir (milenium ke-10 hingga ke-7)
- Kebudayaan Megalitikum (milenium ke-8 hingga ke-2)
- Neolitikum Awal
- Gua Franchthi (milenium ke-20 hingga ke-3) Yunani. Situs Neolitikum Eropa pertama.
- Sesklo (milenium ke-7) Yunani.
- Kebudayaan Starčevo-Criș (Starčevo I, Körös, Criş, Balkan Tengah, milenium ke-7 hingga ke-5)
- Kebudayaan Dudești (milenium ke-6)
- Neolitikum Tengah
- Kebudayaan Tembikar La Almagra (Andalusia, milenium ke-6 hingga ke-5)
- Kebudayaan Vinča (milenium ke-6 hingga ke-3)
- Kebudayaan Linear (milenium ke-6 hingga ke-5)
- Kebudayaan Kardium (Pantai Mediterania, milenium ke-7 hingga ke-4)
- Kebudayaan Sisir Keramik, a.k.a. Kebudayaan Sisir Keramik (Eropa Timur Laut, milenium ke-6 hingga ke-3)
- Peradaban Cucuteni-Trypillia (Moldova, Ukraina, Rumania, skt. 5200 hingga 3500 SM)
- Kebudayaan Ertebølle (Denmark, milenium ke-5 hingga ke-3)
- Kebudayaan Cortaillod (Swiss, milenium ke-4)
- Kebudayaan Hembury (Britania, milenium ke-5 hingga ke-4)
- Kebudayaan Windmill Hill (Britania, milenium ke-3)
- Kebudayaan Pfyn (Swiss, milenium ke-4)
- Kebudayaan Amphora Globular (Eropa Tengah, milenium ke-4 hingga ke-3)
- Kebudayaan Horgen (Swiss, milenium ke-4 hingga ke-3)
- Eneolitikum (zaman tembaga)
- Kebudayaan Lengyel (milenium ke-5)
- Kebudayaan Eropa Tengah menghasilkan pengaturan monumental parit melingkar antara 4800 SM dan 4600 SM.
- Kebudayaan Varna (milenium ke-5)
- Kebudayaan corong (milenium ke-4)
- Kebudayaan Baden (Eropa Tengah, milenium ke-4 hingga ke-3)
- Kebudayaan Los Millares (Almería, Spanyol, milenium ke-4 hingga ke-2)
- Kebudayaan keramik bertali, a.k.a. Kapak Perang atau kebudayaan Makam Tunggal (Eropa Utara, milenium ke-3)
- Kebudayaan Gaudo (milenium ke-3, awal zaman Perunggu, di Italia)
- Kebudayaan Beaker (milenium ke-3 hingga ke-2, awal zaman Perunggu)
Megalitikum
[sunting | sunting sumber]Beberapa Kebudayaan Neolitikum yang tercantum di atas dikenal untuk membangun megalit. Hal ini terjadi terutama di pantai Atlantik Eropa, tetapi ada juga megalit di kepulauan Mediterania barat.
- skt. 5000 SM: Konstruksi di Portugal (Évora). Munculnya Neolitikum di Samudra Atlantik, zaman pertanian di sepanjang pesisir subur Eropa.
- skt. 4800 SM: Konstruksi di Bretagne (Barnenez) dan Poitou (Bougon).
- skt. 4000 SM: Konstruksi di Bretagne (Karnaq), Portugal (Lisboa), Spanyol (Galisia dan Andalusia), Prancis (tengah dan selatan), Korsika, England, Wales, Irlandia Utara (Banbridge) dan di tempat lainnya.
- skt. 3700 SM: Konstruksi di Irlandia (Carrowmore dan di tempat lain) dan Spanyol (Dolmen Menga, Situs Dolmen Antequera, Málaga).
- skt. 3600 SM: Konstruksi di Inggris (Maumbury Rings dan Godmanchester), dan Malta (kuil-kuil di Ġgantija dan Mnajdra).
- skt. 3500 SM: Konstruksi di Spanyol (Dolmen Viera, Situs Dolmen Antequera, Málaga, dan Guadiana), Irlandia (barat daya), Prancis (Arles dan utara), barat laut dan Italia tengah (Piemonte, Lembah Aosta, Liguria dan Toskana), kepulauan Mediterania (Sardinia, Sisilia, Malta) dan di tempat lain di Laut Tengah, Belgia (timur laut) dan Jerman (tengah dan barat daya).
- skt. 3400 SM: Konstruksi di Irlandia (Newgrange), Belanda (timur laut), Jerman (utara dan tengah) Swedia dan Denmark.
- skt. 3200 SM: Konstruksi di Malta (Ħaġar Qim dan Ħal Tarxien).
- skt. 3000 SM: Konstruksi di Prancis (Saumur, Dordogne, Languedoc, Vizcaya, dan pantai Mediterania), Spanyol (Los Millares), Belgia (L'Ardenne), dan Orkney, serta pantai Mediterania Henge (lingkaran batu tegak) di Pulau Britania Raya.
- skt. 2900 SM: Konstruksi di Spanyol (Tholos de El Romeral, Situs Dolmen Antequera, Málaga)
- skt. 2800 SM: Puncak megalitikum Kebudayaan corong di Denmark, dan konstruksi henge di Stonehenge.
Lihat pula
[sunting | sunting sumber]Referensi
[sunting | sunting sumber]- ^ André Leroi-Gourhan (dir.), Dictionnaire de la préhistoire, Paris, 1994.
Sumber
[sunting | sunting sumber]- Aikio, Ante (2004). "An essay on substrate studies and the origin of Saami". Dalam Hyvärinen, Irma; Kallio, Petri; Korhonen, Jarmo. Etymologie, Entlehnungen und Entwicklungen [Etymology, loanwords and developments]. Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki (dalam bahasa German). 63. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique. hlm. 5–34. ISBN 978-951-9040-19-6.
- Ammerman, A. J.; Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1971). "Measuring the Rate of Spread of Early Farming in Europe". Man. 6 (4): 674–88. doi:10.2307/2799190. JSTOR 2799190.
- Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0.
- Balaresque, Patricia; Bowden, Georgina R.; Adams, Susan M.; Leung, Ho-Yee; King, Turi E.; Rosser, Zoë H.; Goodwin, Jane; Moisan, Jean-Paul; Richard, Christelle; Millward, Ann; Demaine, Andrew G.; Barbujani, Guido; Previderè, Carlo; Wilson, Ian J.; Tyler-Smith, Chris; Jobling, Mark A. (2010). Penny, David, ed. "A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for European Paternal Lineages". PLoS Biology. 8 (1): e1000285. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000285. PMC 2799514
. PMID 20087410. Ringkasan – The Guardian (19 January 2010).
- Barbujani, Guido; Bertorelle, Giorgio; Chikhi, Lounès (1998). "Evidence for Paleolithic and Neolithic Gene Flow in Europe". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 62 (2): 488–92. doi:10.1086/301719. PMC 1376895
- Bar-Yosef, Ofer (1998). "The Natufian culture in the Levant, threshold to the origins of agriculture". Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 6 (5): 159–77. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:5<159::AID-EVAN4>3.0.CO;2-7.
- Battaglia, Vincenza; Fornarino, Simona; Al-Zahery, Nadia; Olivieri, Anna; Pala, Maria; Myres, Natalie M; King, Roy J; Rootsi, Siiri; Marjanovic, Damir; Primorac, Dragan; Hadziselimovic, Rifat; Vidovic, Stojko; Drobnic, Katia; Durmishi, Naser; Torroni, Antonio; Santachiara-Benerecetti, A Silvana; Underhill, Peter A; Semino, Ornella (2008). "Y-chromosomal evidence of the cultural diffusion of agriculture in southeast Europe". European Journal of Human Genetics. 17 (6): 820–30. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2008.249. PMC 2947100
- Bellwood, Peter (2004). First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 978-0-631-20566-1.
- Brace, C. Loring; Seguchi, Noriko; Quintyn, Conrad B.; Fox, Sherry C.; Nelson, A. Russell; Manolis, Sotiris K.; Qifeng, Pan (2005). "The questionable contribution of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age to European craniofacial form". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 103 (1): 242–7. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103..242B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0509801102. JSTOR 30048282. PMC 1325007
- Busby, George B. J.; Brisighelli, Francesca; Sánchez-Diz, Paula; Ramos-Luis, Eva; Martinez-Cadenas, Conrado; Thomas, Mark G.; Bradley, Daniel G.; Gusmão, Leonor; Winney, Bruce; Bodmer, Walter; Vennemann, Marielle; Coia, Valentina; Scarnicci, Francesca; Tofanelli, Sergio; Vona, Giuseppe; Ploski, Rafal; Vecchiotti, Carla; Zemunik, Tatijana; Rudan, Igor; Karachanak, Sena; Toncheva, Draga; Anagnostou, Paolo; Ferri, Gianmarco; Rapone, Cesare; Hervig, Tor; Moen, Torolf; Wilson, James F.; Capelli, Cristian (2011). "The peopling of Europe and the cautionary tale of Y chromosome lineage R-M269". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 279 (1730): 884–92. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.1044. PMC 3259916
- Cavalli-Sforza, LL (1997). "Genes, peoples, and languages". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 94 (15): 7719–24. Bibcode:1997PNAS...94.7719C. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.15.7719. PMC 33682
- Chikhi, L.; Destro-Bisol, G.; Bertorelle, G.; Pascali, V.; Barbujani, G. (1998). "Clines of nuclear DNA markers suggest a largely Neolithic ancestry of the European gene pool". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 95 (15): 9053–8. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.9053C. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.15.9053. JSTOR 45884. PMC 21201
- Cruciani, F.; et al. (2007). "Tracing past human male movements in northern/eastern Africa and western Eurasia: new clues from Y-chromosomal haplogroups E-M78 and J-M12". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 24 (6): 1300–1311. doi:10.1093/molbev/msm049. PMID 17351267.
- Derenko, Miroslava; Malyarchuk, Boris; Denisova, Galina; Perkova, Maria; Rogalla, Urszula; Grzybowski, Tomasz; Khusnutdinova, Elza; Dambueva, Irina; Zakharov, Ilia (2012). Kivisild, Toomas, ed. "Complete Mitochondrial DNA Analysis of Eastern Eurasian Haplogroups Rarely Found in Populations of Northern Asia and Eastern Europe". PLoS ONE. 7 (2): e32179. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...732179D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0032179. PMC 3283723
- Di Giacomo, F.; Luca, F.; Popa, L. O.; Akar, N.; Anagnou, N.; Banyko, J.; Brdicka, R.; Barbujani, G.; Papola, F.; Ciavarella, G.; Cucci, F.; Di Stasi, L.; Gavrila, L.; Kerimova, M. G.; Kovatchev, D.; Kozlov, A. I.; Loutradis, A.; Mandarino, V.; Mammi', C.; Michalodimitrakis, E. N.; Paoli, G.; Pappa, K. I.; Pedicini, G.; Terrenato, L.; Tofanelli, S.; Malaspina, P.; Novelletto, A. (2004). "Y chromosomal haplogroup J as a signature of the post-neolithic colonization of Europe". Human Genetics. 115 (5): 357–71. doi:10.1007/s00439-004-1168-9. PMID 15322918.
- Dokládal, Milan; Brožek, Josef (1961). "Physical Anthropology in Czechoslovakia: Recent Developments". Current Anthropology. 2 (5): 455–77. doi:10.1086/200228. JSTOR 2739787.
- Dupanloup, I.; Bertorelle, G; Chikhi, L; Barbujani, G (2004). "Estimating the Impact of Prehistoric Admixture on the Genome of Europeans". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 21 (7): 1361–72. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh135. PMID 15044595.
- Häkkinen, Jaakko (2012). "Early contacts between Uralic and Yukaghir" (PDF). Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia − Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne (264): 91–101. Diakses tanggal 13 July 2013.
- Lacan, Marie; Keyser, Christine; Ricaut, François-Xavier; Brucato, Nicolas; Tarrus, Josep; Bosch, Angel; Guilaine, Jean; Crubezy, Eric; Ludes, Bertrand (2011). "Ancient DNA suggests the leading role played by men in the Neolithic dissemination". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (45): 18255–9. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10818255L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1113061108. PMC 3215063
- Renfrew, Colin (1987). Archaeology and Language. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-521-38675-3.
- Ricaut, F. X.; Waelkens, M. (2008). "Cranial Discrete Traits in a Byzantine Population and Eastern Mediterranean Population Movements". Human Biology. 80 (5): 535–64. doi:10.3378/1534-6617-80.5.535. PMID 19341322.
- Richards, M; Côrte-Real, H; Forster, P; MacAulay, V; Wilkinson-Herbots, H; Demaine, A; Papiha, S; Hedges, R; Bandelt, HJ; Sykes, B (1996). "Paleolithic and neolithic lineages in the European mitochondrial gene pool". American Journal of Human Genetics. 59 (1): 185–203. PMC 1915109
- Ringe, Don (January 6, 2009). "The Linguistic Diversity of Aboriginal Europe". Language Log. Mark Liberman. Diakses tanggal 22 September 2011.
- Rosser, Zoë H.; Zerjal, Tatiana; Hurles, Matthew E.; Adojaan, Maarja; Alavantic, Dragan; Amorim, António; Amos, William; Armenteros, Manuel; Arroyo, Eduardo; Barbujani, Guido; Beckman, G; Beckman, L; Bertranpetit, J; Bosch, E; Bradley, DG; Brede, G; Cooper, G; Côrte-Real, HB; De Knijff, P; Decorte, R; Dubrova, YE; Evgrafov, O; Gilissen, A; Glisic, S; Gölge, M; Hill, EW; Jeziorowska, A; Kalaydjieva, L; Kayser, M; Kivisild, T (2000). "Y-Chromosomal Diversity in Europe is Clinal and Influenced Primarily by Geography, Rather than by Language". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 67 (6): 1526–43. doi:10.1086/316890. PMC 1287948
- Semino, Ornella; Magri, Chiara; Benuzzi, Giorgia; Lin, Alice A.; Al-Zahery, Nadia; Battaglia, Vincenza; MacCioni, Liliana; Triantaphyllidis, Costas; Shen, Peidong; Oefner, Peter J.; Zhivotovsky, Lev A.; King, Roy; Torroni, Antonio; Cavalli-Sforza, L. Luca; Underhill, Peter A.; Santachiara-Benerecetti, A. Silvana (2004). "Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (5): 1023–34. doi:10.1086/386295. PMC 1181965
- Semino, O.; Passarino, G; Oefner, PJ; Lin, AA; Arbuzova, S; Beckman, LE; De Benedictis, G; Francalacci, P; Kouvatsi, A; Limborska, S; Marcikiae, M; Mika, A; Mika, B; Primorac, D; Santachiara-Benerecetti, AS; Cavalli-Sforza, LL; Underhill, PA (2000). "The Genetic Legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in Extant Europeans: A Y Chromosome Perspective". Science. 290 (5494): 1155–9. Bibcode:2000Sci...290.1155S. doi:10.1126/science.290.5494.1155. PMID 11073453.
- Shennan, Stephen; Edinborough, Kevan (2007). "Prehistoric population history: From the Late Glacial to the Late Neolithic in Central and Northern Europe". Journal of Archaeological Science. 34 (8): 1339–45. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.10.031.
- Subbaraman, Nidhi (2012). "Art of cheese-making is 7,500 years old". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2012.12020.
- Vandermeer, J. (1975). "Interspecific competition: A new approach to the classical theory". Science. 188 (4185): 253–5. doi:10.1126/science.188.4185.253 (tidak aktif 2018-09-23). PMID 1118725.
- Zvelebil, Marek (1989). "On the transition to farming in Europe, or what was spreading with the Neolithic: a reply to Ammerman (1989)". Antiquity. 63 (239): 379–83. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2013-10-30.
- Zvelebil, Marek (2009). "Mesolithic prelude and neolithic revolution". Dalam Zvelebil, Marek. Hunters in Transition: Mesolithic Societies of Temperate Eurasia and Their Transition to Farming. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 5–15. ISBN 978-0-521-10957-4.
- Zvelebil, Marek (2009). "Mesolithic societies and the transition to farming: problems of time, scale and organisation". Dalam Zvelebil, Marek. Hunters in Transition: Mesolithic Societies of Temperate Eurasia and Their Transition to Farming. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 167–88. ISBN 978-0-521-10957-4.
Bacaan selanjutnya
[sunting | sunting sumber]- Bellwood, Peter (2001). "Early Agriculturalist Population Diasporas? Farming, Languages, and Genes". Annual Review of Anthropology. 30: 181–207. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.30.1.181. JSTOR 3069214.
- Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Menozzi, Paolo; Piazza, Alberto (1994). The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08750-4.
- Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca (2001). Genes, Peoples, and Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22873-3.
- Gimbutas, Marija (1989). The Language of the Goddess. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-250356-5.
- Fu, Qiaomei et al. "The genetic history of Ice Age Europe". Nature 534, 200–205 (9 June 2016) doi:10.1038/nature17993
Pranala luar
[sunting | sunting sumber]- Early farmers from across Europe directly descended from Neolithic Aegeans, Hofmanova et al, 2016
- The genetic structure of the world’s first farmers, Lazaridis et al, 2016
- Massive migration from the steppe is a source for Indo-European languages in Europe, Haak et al, 2015
- Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia, Allentoft et al, 2015
- Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe, Mathieson et al, 2015
- "The Horse, the Wheel and Language, How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes shaped the Modern World", David W Anthony, 2007
- General table of Neolithic sites in Europe
- Mario Alinei, et al., Paleolithic Continuity Theory of Indo-European Origins
- culture.gouv.fr: Life along the Danube 6500 years ago