Gurbacewar Kwayoyin halitta

Gurbacewar Kwayoyin halitta
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na	biological risk (en)
Yana haddasa	extinction (en)

Gurbacewar ƙwayoyin halitta,^[1][2] shine kwararar kwayoyin halitta zuwa cikin dazuka. An bayyana shi a matsayin "watsewar gurbatattun kwayoyin halitta daga kwayoyin halitta da aka yi musu kwaskwarima zuwa ƙwayoyin halitta, ( by cross-pollination), amma ya zo a yi amfani da shi ta wasu manyan hanyoyi. Yana da alaƙa da ra'ayin jinsin halittu na yawan jama'a game da kwararar kwayoyin halitta, da ceton kwayoyin halitta, wanda shine kayan halitta da gangan aka gabatar don ƙara dacewa da yawan jama'a. ^[3] Ana kiransa gurɓacewar halitta lokacin da ta yi mummunar tasiri ga lafiyar jama'a, kamar ta hanyar ɓarnawar baƙin ciki , da gabatar da abubuwan da ba'a so wanda zai iya haifar da lalacewa.

Masanan ilimin halittu da masu kiyayewa sun yi amfani da kalmar don bayyana kwararar kwayoyin halitta daga cikin gida, na feral, da wadanda ba na asali ba zuwa cikin nau'in 'yan asalin daji, wanda suke ganin ba a so. Suna haɓaka wayar da kan jama'a game da illolin da aka gabatar da nau'ikan ɓarna waɗanda za su iya " haɓaka da nau'in asali, haifar da gurɓataccen ƙwayar cuta ". A fannin noma, noma da kiwo, ana amfani da gurbacewar dabi’ar halitta wajen bayyana yadda kwayoyin halitta ke gudana tsakanin nau’in da aka kirkira da kuma dangin daji. Yin amfani da kalmar "ƙazanta" yana nufin isar da ra'ayin cewa haɗa bayanan kwayoyin halitta yana da illa ga muhalli, amma saboda haɗuwa da bayanan kwayoyin halitta na iya haifar da sakamako iri-iri, "ƙazanta" na iya zama ba koyaushe mafi daidaitaccen bayanin ba. .

Wasu masana kimiyyar halittu da masu kiyayewa sun yi amfani da gurbacewar kwayoyin halitta tsawon shekaru da dama a matsayin kalma don bayyana kwararar kwayoyin halitta daga wasu nau'ikan da ba na asali ba, masu cin zarafi, na cikin gida, ko injiniyoyin kwayoyin halitta zuwa yawan 'yan asalin daji .

Gabatar da kwayoyin halitta a cikin tarin kwayoyin halittar jama'a ta hanyar sa hannun mutum na iya yin tasiri mai kyau da mara kyau ga yawan jama'a. Lokacin da aka gabatar da kwayoyin halitta da gangan don ƙara dacewa da yawan jama'a, ana kiran wannan ceton kwayoyin halitta . Lokacin da aka gabatar da kwayoyin halitta ba da gangan ba ga yawan jama'a, ana kiran wannan gurɓataccen ƙwayar cuta kuma yana iya yin tasiri mara kyau ga lafiyar jama'a (musamman ta hanyar rashin tausayi ), gabatar da wasu abubuwan da ba'a so ba, ko kuma a zahiri suna haifar da lalacewa.

Wani nau'in da aka gabatar shine wanda ba ɗan asalin al'ummar da aka bayar ba wanda ko dai da gangan aka kawo shi cikin yanayin da aka bayar. Tasirin gabatarwa yana da matukar canzawa, amma idan nau'in da aka gabatar yana da babban mummunan tasiri a kan sabon muhallinsa, ana iya ɗaukarsa nau'in ɓarna. Ɗaya daga cikin irin wannan misalin shine ƙaddamar da ƙwaro na Asiya Longhorned a Arewacin Amirka, wanda aka fara gano shi a shekara ta 1996 a Brooklyn, New York. An yi imanin cewa, an bullo da waɗannan ƙwaro ne ta hanyar kaya a tashoshin kasuwanci. Ƙwayoyin suna da illa sosai ga muhalli, kuma an kiyasta cewa suna haifar da haɗari ga 35% na bishiyoyin birane, ban da gandun daji na halitta.^[4] Wadannan ƙwaro suna haifar da mummunar lalacewa ga itacen bishiyoyi ta hanyar tsutsa. Kasancewarsu a cikin yanayin yanayin yana lalata tsarin al'umma, yana da mummunan tasiri akan yawancin nau'ikan da ke cikin tsarin.

Nau'in da aka gabatar ba koyaushe ke kawo cikas ga muhalli ba, duk da haka. Tomás Carlo da Jason Gleditch na Jami'ar Jihar Penn sun gano cewa adadin tsire-tsire na honeysuckle na "masu cin zarafi" a yankin yana da alaƙa da adadi da bambancin tsuntsaye a yankin Happy Valley na Pennsylvania, yana ba da shawarar gabatar da tsire-tsire na honeysuckle da tsuntsaye sun kafa dangantaka mai amfani da juna.^[5] Kasancewar honeysuckle da aka gabatar yana da alaƙa da ɗimbin bambancin yawan tsuntsayen a wannan yanki, yana nuna cewa gabatar da nau'in ba koyaushe yana cutar da yanayin da aka bayar kuma yana dogara gaba ɗaya mahallin mahallin.

Masanan ilimin halitta da masu kiyayewa sun yi amfani da wannan kalma na tsawon shekaru da yawa don bayyana kwararar kwayoyin halitta daga cikin gida, na rani, da kuma wadanda ba na asali ba zuwa cikin nau'in 'yan asalin daji, wanda suke ganin ba a so.^[6][7] Misali, TRAFFIC ita ce cibiyar sa ido kan cinikin namun daji ta kasa da kasa wacce ke aiki don takaita ciniki a tsiro da dabbobin daji ta yadda ba ta zama barazana ga manufofin kiyayewa ba. Suna haɓaka wayar da kan jama'a game da illolin da aka gabatar da nau'ikan ɓarna waɗanda za su iya " haɓaka da nau'in asali, haifar da gurɓataccen ƙwayar cuta ". Bugu da ƙari kuma, Kwamitin Tsaro na Haɗin gwiwa, mai ba da shawara na doka ga gwamnatin Birtaniya, ya bayyana cewa nau'in nau'in.

Nau'in cin zarafi na iya mamaye duka manya da ƙanana na 'yan ƙasa kuma suna da tasiri sosai. Bayan mamayewa, nau'ikan masu cin zarafi suna yin cudanya da nau'ikan 'yan asali don samar da bakararre ko fiye da juyin halitta wanda zai iya fin ƴan asalin ƙasar. Nau'in cin zarafi na iya haifar da ɓarkewar ƙananan jama'a a tsibiran da ke da rauni musamman saboda ƙarancin bambance-bambancen jinsin su. A cikin waɗannan yawan jama'a, ana iya rushe gyare-gyare na gida ta hanyar gabatar da sababbin kwayoyin halitta waɗanda bazai dace da ƙananan tsibirin tsibirin ba. Misali, Cercocarpus traskiae na tsibirin Catalina da ke gabar tekun California ya fuskanci kusan bacewa tare da yawan jama'a guda daya kawai ya rage saboda hadewar 'ya'yansa da Cercocarpus betuloides . ^[8]

Ƙara yawan cudanya tsakanin namun daji da na gida na kwayoyin halitta na iya haifar da hulɗar haifuwa da ke da lahani ga iyawar mutanen daji na rayuwa. Yawan daji shine wanda ke rayuwa a wurare na halitta kuma mutane ba sa kulawa akai-akai. Wannan ya bambanta da jama'ar gida waɗanda ke zaune a yankunan da mutane ke sarrafa su kuma a kai a kai, kuma a tarihi, suna hulɗa da mutane. Kwayoyin halitta daga al'ummomin gida ana ƙara su zuwa yawan daji sakamakon haifuwa. A yawancin yawan amfanin gona wannan na iya zama sakamakon pollen da ke tafiya daga amfanin gona da ake noma zuwa tsiron daji da ke makwabtaka da irin wannan nau'in. Ga dabbobin da aka noma, wannan haifuwar na iya faruwa a sakamakon tserewa ko dabbobin da aka saki.^[9][10][11]

Shahararren misali na wannan al'amari shine kwararar kwayoyin halitta tsakanin kyarkeci da karnukan gida. Jaridar New York Times ta ruwaito, daga kalaman masanin ilmin halitta Dokta Luigi Boitani, "Ko da yake kyarkeci da karnuka sun kasance suna zama tare da juna a Italiya kuma suna iya yiwuwa a baya, sabon abu mai damuwa, a ra'ayin Dr. Boitani, shine karuwar bambance-bambance a cikin lambobi, wanda ke nuna cewa juna zai zama gama gari. A sakamakon haka, '' gurɓacewar kwayoyin halitta na tafkin kerkeci na iya kaiwa matakan da ba za a iya jurewa ba', in ji shi. 'Ta hanyar haɓakawa, karnuka suna iya ɗaukar kwayoyin halittar kerkeci cikin sauƙi kuma su lalata kerkeci, kamar yadda yake,' in ji shi. Kerkeci zai iya rayuwa a matsayin dabba mai kama da kare, wanda ya fi dacewa da zama kusa da mutane, in ji shi, amma ba zai zama 'abin da muke kira wolf a yau ba'" ^[1]

Aquaculture al'ada ce ta noman dabbobi ko tsire-tsire na ruwa don manufar ci. Wannan aikin yana ƙara zama gama gari don samar da salmon . Ana kiran wannan musamman aquaculture na salmonoids . Ɗaya daga cikin hatsarori na wannan ɗabi'a shine yuwuwar kifin kifi na cikin gida ya wargaje daga abin da ake ciki. Lamarin tserewa al'amura na zama ruwan dare yayin da kiwo ke samun karbuwa. Tsarin noma na iya zama mara tasiri wajen riƙe ɗimbin dabbobi masu girma cikin sauri da suke ajiyewa. Masifu na yanayi, hawan igiyar ruwa, da sauran abubuwan da suka faru na muhalli kuma na iya haifar da tserewar dabbobin ruwa. Dalilin da ya sa ake ɗaukar waɗannan tserewa haɗari shine tasirin da suke haifar da yawan daji da suke haifuwa da su bayan tserewa. A lokuta da yawa yawan jama'ar daji na samun raguwar yuwuwar rayuwa bayan haifuwa da mutanen gida na salmon. 

Ma'aikatar Kifi da namun daji ta Washington ta ambaci cewa "yawan bayyana damuwar da ke kewaye da kifin Atlantika da suka tsere sun haɗa da gasa tare da kifin kifi na asali, tsinkaya, canja wurin cuta, haɓakawa, da mulkin mallaka." Wani rahoto da wannan ƙungiyar ta yi a shekara ta 1999 bai gano cewa salmon da ya tsere ba yana da haɗari ga al'ummar daji.

Shuka amfanin gona na nufin rukunin tsire-tsire da aka shuka don amfani. Duk da zaman gida a cikin shekaru da yawa, waɗannan tsire-tsire ba su da nisa daga danginsu na daji da za su iya haifuwa idan an haɗa su tare. Har ila yau ana noman amfanin gona da yawa a yankunan da suka samo asali kuma kwayoyin halittar da ke yawo tsakanin amfanin gona da dangin daji yana tasiri ga juyin halittar daji.^[12] Manoma za su iya guje wa haifuwa tsakanin al'ummomi daban-daban ta hanyar tsara lokacin shuka amfanin gona don kada amfanin gona ya yi fure lokacin da dangin daji za su kasance. An canza amfanin gona na cikin gida ta hanyar zaɓin wucin gadi da injiniyan kwayoyin halitta. Halin halittar halittu na amfanin gona da yawa ya bambanta da na danginsu na daji, amma yayin da suke kusa da juna, za su iya raba kwayoyin halitta ta hanyar pollen. Gudun kwayoyin halitta yana wanzuwa tsakanin amfanin gona da takwarorinsu na daji.^[13]

Kwayoyin halitta da aka ƙera su ta hanyar gyare-gyare a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje, don haka sun bambanta da waɗanda aka ƙirƙira ta hanyar zaɓin wucin gadi. A fannin noma, noma da kiwo, ana amfani da gurbacewar dabi’ar halitta wajen bayyana kwararar kwayoyin halitta tsakanin nau’in GE da dangin daji. ^[14] An fara amfani da kalmar " gurɓacewar kwayoyin halitta " a cikin wannan ma'anar ta baya ta bayyana a cikin nazari mai zurfi game da yuwuwar tasirin muhalli na injiniyan kwayoyin halitta a cikin mujallar Ecologist a Yuli 1989 . Har ila yau, masanin muhalli Jeremy Rifkin ya shahara a cikin littafinsa na Biotech Century na 1998. ^[15] Yayin da aka kwatanta da gangan tsakanin nau'o'in jinsin halittu guda biyu a matsayin haɓaka tare da shigar da kwayoyin halitta na gaba, Rifkin, wanda ya taka muhimmiyar rawa a muhawarar ɗabi'a fiye da shekaru goma da suka wuce, ya yi amfani da gurbacewar kwayoyin halitta don bayyana abin da ya ɗauka a matsayin matsalolin da za su iya. yana faruwa ne saboda tsarin rashin niyya na (na zamani) halittu masu canza halitta (GMOs) suna tarwatsa kwayoyin halittarsu zuwa yanayin halitta ta hanyar kiwo da tsirrai ko dabbobin daji.^{[16][14][17][18]} Damuwa game da mummunan sakamako daga kwararar kwayoyin halitta tsakanin halittun da aka kirkira ta kwayoyin halitta da yawan daji suna da inganci. Yawancin masara da waken soya da ake nomawa a tsakiyar yammacin Amurka ana canza su ta hanyar kwayoyin halitta. Akwai masara da irin waken soya da ke jure maganin ciyawa kamar glyphosate ^[19] da masara da ke samar da maganin kashe qwari na neonicotinoid a cikin dukkan kyallensa. ^[20] Wadannan gyare-gyaren kwayoyin halitta ana nufin su kara yawan amfanin gona amma akwai kadan shaida cewa yawan amfanin gona yana karuwa. ^[20] Yayin da masana kimiyya ke damuwa da kwayoyin halitta da aka yi musu aikin injiniya na iya yin mummunan tasiri a kan al'ummomin da ke kewaye da tsire-tsire da dabbobi, haɗarin kwararar kwayoyin halitta tsakanin halittun da aka yi musu aikin injiniya da na daji wani abin damuwa ne. Yawancin amfanin gona da aka noma na iya zama masu jure ciyawa kuma su hayayyafa tare da dangin daji. Ana buƙatar ƙarin bincike don fahimtar yadda adadin kwayoyin halitta ke gudana tsakanin kayan amfanin gona da aka yi amfani da su da kuma yawan jama'ar daji ke faruwa, da kuma tasirin haɗakar kwayoyin halitta.

Ana iya aiwatar da maye gurbi a cikin kwayoyin halitta ta hanyar fallasa kwayoyin halitta zuwa sinadarai ko radiation don haifar da maye gurbi. Anyi hakan ne a cikin tsire-tsire don ƙirƙirar maye gurbi waɗanda ke da halayen da ake so. Ana iya haifar da waɗannan mutants tare da wasu maye gurbi ko daidaikun da ba a canza su ba don kiyaye halayen mutant. Duk da haka, kama da haɗarin da ke tattare da gabatar da mutane zuwa wani yanayi, bambancin da rikitattun mutane ke haifarwa na iya yin mummunan tasiri ga ƴan ƙasar su ma.^{[21][22] [23]}

Tun da 2005 akwai Rijistar Rarraba GM, wanda aka ƙaddamar don GeneWatch UK da Greenpeace International wanda ke yin rikodin duk abubuwan da suka faru na ganganci ko na bazata sakin kwayoyin halitta da aka gyara ta hanyar amfani da dabarun zamani.

An ƙirƙira fasahar hana amfani da kwayoyin halitta (GURTs) don manufar kariyar kadarori, amma zai iya zama da fa'ida wajen hana tarwatsawar transgenes. Fasahar GeneSafe ta gabatar da hanyar da ta zama sananne da suna "Terminator." Wannan hanya ta dogara ne akan tsaba waɗanda ke samar da tsire-tsire masu bakararre. Wannan zai hana motsi na transgenes zuwa cikin jama'ar daji saboda haɓakawa ba zai yiwu ba. ^[24] Duk da haka, ba a taɓa yin amfani da wannan fasaha ba saboda rashin daidaituwa ya shafi manoma a ƙasashe masu tasowa, waɗanda ke adana iri don amfani da su a kowace shekara (yayin da a kasashen da suka ci gaba, manoma gabaɗaya suna sayen iri daga kamfanonin samar da iri).

Hakanan an yi amfani da abin da ke cikin jiki don hana tserewar transgenes. Ƙunƙarar jiki ta haɗa da shinge kamar matattara a cikin labs, allon allo a cikin greenhouses, da keɓewa a cikin filin. Nisan keɓewa ba koyaushe ya kasance mai nasara ba, kamar tserewa transgene daga keɓe filin zuwa cikin daji a cikin bentgrass Agrostis stolonifera mai jure ciyawa.

Wata hanyar da aka ba da shawara wacce ta shafi halayen kariya (misali juriya na ƙwayoyin cuta) shine ragewa. Ragewa ya haɗa da haɗa kyakkyawar dabi'a (mai amfani ga dacewa) zuwa yanayin da ba shi da kyau (mai cutarwa ga lafiyar jiki) zuwa daji amma ba mutanen gida ba. A wannan yanayin, idan an gabatar da yanayin kariya ga ciyawa, za a kuma gabatar da sifa mara kyau don rage lafiyar ciyawa gaba ɗaya da rage yiwuwar haifuwar mutum kuma ta haka yaduwa na transgene.

Ba duk kwayoyin halitta ne da aka kirkira su ke haifar da gurbatar halittu ba. Injiniyan kwayoyin halitta yana da fa'ida iri-iri kuma an ayyana shi musamman a matsayin sarrafa kwayar halittar kwayoyin halitta kai tsaye. Gurbacewar kwayoyin halitta na iya faruwa sakamakon bullo da wani nau'in da ba na asali ba ne ga wani yanayi, kuma kwayoyin halittar da aka kirkira su ne misalan daidaikun mutane wadanda za su iya haifar da gurbatar halittu bayan gabatarwa. Saboda wadannan kasada, an yi nazari domin a tantance hadurran gurbacewar kwayoyin halitta da ke hade da kwayoyin halitta wadanda aka kirkira ta hanyar kwayoyin halitta:

1. Halittar Halitta A cikin binciken shekaru 10 na amfanin gona daban-daban guda huɗu, babu ɗaya daga cikin tsire-tsire da aka kirkira da ya fi cin zarafi ko dagewa fiye da takwarorinsa na al'ada. Wani misali da aka yi da'awar gurɓacewar kwayoyin halitta shine sanannen gano ƙwayoyin cuta daga masarar GE a cikin gonakin masara a Oaxaca, Mexico. Rahoton daga Quist da Chapela, tun daga lokacin an tozarta shi bisa dalilai na dabara. Mujallar kimiyya da ta fara buga binciken ta kammala da cewa "shaidar da ake da ita ba ta isa ba don tabbatar da buga ainihin takarda." Ƙoƙarin da aka yi na baya-bayan nan don maimaita karatun na asali sun kammala cewa masarar da aka gyara ta asali ba ta nan daga kudancin Mexico a 2003 da 2004.
2. Wani bincike na 2009 ya tabbatar da ainihin sakamakon binciken na 2001 mai rikitarwa, ta hanyar gano transgenes a cikin kimanin 1% na 2000 samfurori na masarar daji a Oaxaca, Mexico, duk da Nature ya janye binciken 2001 da binciken na biyu ya kasa mayar da sakamakon binciken farko. karatu. Binciken ya gano cewa kwayoyin halittar da ke dauke da kwayar halitta sun zama ruwan dare a wasu fannoni, amma babu su a wasu, don haka ya bayyana dalilin da ya sa wani bincike da ya gabata ya kasa gano su. Bugu da ƙari kuma, ba kowane hanyar dakin gwaje-gwaje ba ne ya sami nasarar gano transgenes.
3. Wani bincike na 2004 da aka yi a kusa da gwajin filin Oregon don gyare-gyaren kwayoyin halitta iri-iri na creeping bentgrass ( Agrostis stolonifera ) ya nuna cewa transgene da halayen haɗin gwiwarsa ( juriya ga glyphosate herbicide ) na iya watsawa ta hanyar iska ta hanyar iska zuwa ga tsire-tsire masu tsire-tsire na nau'in Agrostis daban-daban, har zuwa 14 kilometres (8.7 mi) daga filin gwaji. A cikin 2007, Kamfanin Scotts, mai samar da bentgrass da aka gyara, ya yarda ya biya hukuncin farar hula na $ 500,000 ga Ma'aikatar Aikin Gona ta Amurka (USDA). USDA ta yi zargin cewa Scotts "ya kasa gudanar da gwajin filin Oregon na 2003 ta hanyar da ta tabbatar da cewa ba mai jure wa glyphosate mai rarrafe bentgrass ko 'ya'yansa ba zai dawwama a cikin muhalli".

Ba wai kawai akwai haɗari dangane da aikin injiniyan kwayoyin halitta ba, amma akwai haɗarin da ke fitowa daga haɗakar nau'in. A cikin Czechoslovakia, an gabatar da ibex daga Turkiyya da Sinai don taimakawa wajen inganta yawan ƙawancin a can, wanda ya haifar da nau'in nau'in iri da ke haifar da 'ya'ya da wuri, wanda ya sa yawancin jama'a suka ɓace gaba daya. Halin halittar kowane al'umma na dabbar dabbar a Turkiyya da Sinai an daidaita su da muhallinsu don haka idan aka sanya su cikin sabon yanayin muhalli ba su yi girma ba. Bugu da ƙari, yawan mahalli da ka iya tasowa daga bullo da wani sabon nau'in na iya zama mai rugujewa ta yadda yanayin halittu ba zai iya ɗaukar wasu al'umma ba.

Amfani da kalmar " gurɓatawa" a cikin kalmar gurbacewar kwayoyin halitta yana da mummunan ma'ana da gangan kuma ana nufin isar da ra'ayin cewa haɗa bayanan kwayoyin cuta yana da illa ga muhalli. Duk da haka, saboda haɗuwa da bayanan kwayoyin halitta na iya haifar da sakamako iri-iri, "ƙazanta" mai yiwuwa ba zai zama mafi cikakken bayanin ba. Kwayoyin halitta ba a so a cewar wasu masana muhalli da masu kiyayewa, gami da ƙungiyoyi kamar Greenpeace, TRAFFIC, da GeneWatch UK.

" Cutar nau'i-nau'i sun kasance babban dalilin bacewa a duniya a cikin 'yan shekaru da suka wuce. Wasu daga cikinsu suna farautar dabbobin daji, suna yin gogayya da shi don samun albarkatu, ko yada cututtuka, yayin da wasu na iya haɗawa da nau'ikan na asali, suna haifar da " gurɓataccen ƙwayar cuta ". A cikin wadannan hanyoyi, jinsunan baƙi kamar babban barazana ga daidaituwar yanayi kamar yadda mutane ke haifar da yawan mutane na kai tsaye. "

Hakanan ana iya la'akari da wanda ba a so idan ya haifar da asarar dacewa a cikin yawan jama'ar daji. Ana iya danganta kalmar tare da kwararar kwayoyin halitta daga nau'in maye gurbi, kwayoyin halitta ko kwayoyin halitta da aka tsara zuwa kwayoyin da ba GE ba, ta wadanda suka yi la'akari da kwararar kwayar halitta mai lahani. Wadannan kungiyoyi masu rajin kare muhalli sun tsaya kyam ga ci gaba da samar da kwayoyin halitta.

Ta fuskar gwamnati, an ayyana gurbacewar kwayoyin halitta kamar haka Hukumar Abinci da Aikin Noma ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya :

"Ba a sarrafa shi ba na bayanan kwayoyin halitta (yawanci ana magana akan transgenes) zuwa cikin kwayoyin halittar kwayoyin halitta wanda irin wadannan kwayoyin halitta ba su cikin yanayi." ^[25]

Amfani da kalmar ' gurɓacewar halitta' da makamantansu irin su lalacewar kwayoyin halitta, swamping genetic swaming, genetic swaming, da kuma ta'addanci, masana kimiyya suna muhawara saboda da yawa basu ga ya dace a kimiyyance ba. Rhymer da Simberloff suna jayayya cewa waɗannan nau'ikan kalmomi:

A...yana nufin ko dai cewa matasan ba su da kyau fiye da iyaye, waɗanda ba dole ba ne al'amarin, ko kuma cewa akwai ƙima mai mahimmanci a cikin wuraren waha na "tsarki". suna ba da shawarar cewa a kira kwayar halittar jini ta kwarara daga nau'ikan masu cin zarafi a kira su hadewar kwayoyin halitta tun:

"Hing" ba lallai ba ne ya zama mai kima, kuma muna amfani da shi a nan don nuna gaurayawan wuraren waha ko a'a yana da alaƙa da raguwar dacewa.

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

1. ↑ ^{1.0 1.1} Boffey PM (December 13, 1983). "Italy's Wild Dogs Winning Darwinian Battle". The New York Times. Although wolves and dogs have always lived in close contact in Italy and have presumably mated in the past, the newly worrisome element, in Dr. Boitani's opinion, is the increasing disparity in numbers, which suggests that interbreeding will become fairly common. As a result, genetic pollution of the wolf gene pool might reach irreversible levels, he warned. By hybridization, dogs can easily absorb the wolf genes and destroy the wolf, as it is, he said. The wolf might survive as a more doglike animal, better adapted to living close to people, he said, but it would not be what we today call a wolf.
2. ↑ Ellstrand NC (2001). "When Transgenes Wander, Should We Worry?". Plant Physiol. 125 (4): 1543–1545. doi:10.1104/pp.125.4.1543. PMC 1539377. PMID 11299333.
3. ↑ Empty citation (help)
4. ↑ Haack, Robert A., et al. Managing Invasive Populations of Asian Longhorned Beetle and Citrus Longhorned Beetle: A Worldwide Perspective. vol. 55, Annual Review of Entomology, 2010, Managing Invasive Populations of Asian Longhorned Beetle and Citrus Longhorned Beetle: A Worldwide Perspective.
5. ↑ 2011, Invasive Plants Can Create Positive Ecological Change.
6. ↑ "When is wildlife trade a problem?". TRAFFIC.org, the wildlife trade monitoring network, a joint programme of WWF and IUCN. The World Conservation Union. Archived from the original on 24 December 2007.
7. ↑ Effects of the introduction of invasive/non-native species Archived 2011-02-04 at the Wayback Machine - Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC), a statutory adviser to Government on UK and international nature conservation. Accessed on November 25, 2007. : "Occasionally non-native species can reproduce with native species and produce hybrids, which will alter the genetic pool (a process called genetic pollution), which is an irreversible change."
8. ↑ Empty citation (help)
9. ↑ Anderson R (3 September 2017). "More than 160,000 non-native Atlantic salmon escaped into Washington waters in fish farm accident". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2018-04-30.
10. ↑ "'Environmental Nightmare' After Thousands Of Atlantic Salmon Escape Fish Farm". NPR.org. Retrieved 2018-04-30.
11. ↑ Scotti A. "Thousands of salmon escape from fish farm, and no one knows what will happen next". nydailynews.com. Retrieved 2018-04-30.^{[permanent dead link]}
12. ↑ Ellstrand, Norman C.; Prentice, Honor C.; Hancock, James F. (1999). "Gene Flow and Introgression from Domesticated Plants into Their Wild Relatives". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 30 (1): 539–563. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.30.1.539.
13. ↑ Carroll, Sean B. (2010-05-24). "Tracking the Ancestry of Corn Back 9,000 Years". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-05-01.
14. ↑ ^{14.0 14.1} "Gene flow from GM to non-GM populations in the crop, forestry, animal and fishery sectors". Background document to Conference 7: May 31 - July 6, 2002; Electronic Forum on Biotechnology in Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
15. ↑ vanc. Missing or empty |title= (help)
16. ↑ Rifkin J (1998). The Biotech Century: Harnessing the Gene and Remaking the World. J P Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-909-7.
17. ↑ Quinion M. "Genetic Pollution". World Wide Words.
18. ↑ Otchet A (1998). "Jeremy Rifkin: fears of a brave new world". an interview hosted by The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
19. ↑ Empty citation (help)
20. ↑ ^{20.0 20.1} Empty citation (help)
21. ↑ "Illegal Genetically Engineered Corn from Monsanto Detected in Argentina". GM Contamination Register. Archived from the original on 2011-06-22. Retrieved 2010-07-08.
22. ↑ "Brazil – Illegal Roundup Ready cotton grown on 16,000 hectares". GM Contamination Register. Archived from the original on 2017-02-12. Retrieved 2010-07-08.
23. ↑ "GM Contamination Register". Archived from the original on 2005-06-05. Retrieved 2010-07-06.
24. ↑ Empty citation (help)
25. ↑ Zaid A, Hughes HG, Porceddu E, Nicholas F (26 October 2007). Glossary of Biotechnology for Food and Agriculture - A Revised and Augmented Edition of the Glossary of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. A FAO Research and Technology Paper. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 978-92-5-104683-8. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007.