Starting in the mid-1900s, mobile radar vehicles were being used for academic and military research. In the late 1900s, mobile doppler weather radars were designed and created with the goal to study atmospheric phenomena.[1]
History
editThis section needs to be updated. (June 2024) |
Mobile doppler weather radars have been used on dozens of scientific and academic research projects from their invention in the late 1900s.[1] One problems facing meteorological researchers was the fact that mesonets and other ground-based observation methods were being deployed too slow in order to accurately measure and study high-impact atmospheric phenomena.[1] Between 1994-1995, the first Doppler on Wheels was constructed and was deployed for the first time at the end of the VORTEX1 Project.[1] The Doppler on Wheels led to several scientific breakthroughs and theories regarding tornadoes.[1] The Doppler on Wheels also led to the “first tornado wind maps, measurements of an axial downdraft and lofted debris, multiple vortices, winds versus damage and surface measurement intercomparisons, winds as low as 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft) above the ground level and low-level inflow, 3D ground-based velocity track display (GBVTD) vector wind field retrievals, rapid evolution of debris over varying land use and terrain, documentation of cyclonic/anticyclonic tornado pairs and documentation of varied and complex tornado wind field structures including multiple wind field maxima and multiple vortex mesocyclones, downward propagation of vorticity and an extensive climatology of tornado intensity and size revealing, quantitatively, that tornadoes are much more intense and larger than indicated by damage surveys.”[1]
In 2011, Howard Bluestein, a research professor at the University of Oklahoma, led a team to develop the Rapid X-band Polarimetric Radar (RaXPol).[2][3][4] In 2013, researchers published to the American Meteorological Society that RaXPol was created because “the need for rapidly scanning weather radars for observing fast-changing weather phenomena such as convective storms, microbursts, small-scale features in hurricanes, and the process of convective development has been well established” throughout history.[2] This included publications by the National Center for Atmospheric Research in 1983,[5] research by several scientists published in 2001,[6] and published research by the U.S. federal government in 2012.[7] The United States Department of Defense gave the University of Oklahoma over $5 million dollars (2019 USD) in the development of new mobile radars, which were set to be used by the United States Navy.[8]
In 2023, the University of Oklahoma, along with the National Severe Storms Laboratory developed and deployed the first ever mobile phased array radar (HORUS).[9][10]
List of notable observations
editSeveral tornadoes throughout the last few decades have been observed by various mobile radars. However, only the most notable ones are used for academic research and subsequently published.[11] This is a list of known tornadoes which were observed by mobile radars.
1990–1999
edit| Official rating | Date | Location | Minimum peak wind speed | Maximum peak wind speed | Highest confirmed peak wind speed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| F4 | April 26, 1991 | Ceres, Oklahoma | 268 mph (431 km/h) | 280 mph (450 km/h) | 280 mph (450 km/h) |
| A University of Oklahoma chase team headed by Howard Bluestein utilized mobile doppler weather radar to analyze the tornado. The radar measured peak winds of 120–125 m/s (270–280 mph; 430–450 km/h) between 150–190 m (490–620 ft) above the surface.[11] At the time, this represented the strongest winds ever measured by radar, including the first measurements of F5 intensity winds.[12][13] | |||||
| F4 | May 30, 1998 | Spencer, South Dakota | 234 mph (377 km/h) | 266 mph (428 km/h) | 264 mph (425 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels recorded winds of 264 mph (425 km/h) "well below" 50 metres (160 ft) above the ground level, "perhaps as low as 5–10 metres (16–33 ft) above the radar level".[14][11] The Doppler on Wheels also recorded a confirmed five-second wind speed average of 112 m/s (250 mph; 400 km/h).[14] | |||||
| F4 | May 3, 1999 | Mulhall, Oklahoma | 246 mph (396 km/h) | 299 mph (481 km/h) | 257 mph (414 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels documented the largest-ever-observed core flow circulation with a distance of 1,600 m (5,200 ft) between peak velocities on either side of the tornado, and a roughly 7 km (4.3 mi) width of peak wind gusts exceeding 43 m/s (96 mph), making the Mulhall tornado the largest tornado ever measured quantitatively.[15] The DOW measured a complex multi-vortex structure,[16] with several vortices containing winds of up to 115 m/s (260 mph) rotating around the tornado. The 3D structure of the tornado has been analyzed in a 2005 article in the Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences by Wen-Chau Lee and Joshua Wurman.[17] In 2024, it was published that the radar did measure winds of approximately 257 mph (414 km/h) approximately 30 m (98 ft) above the radar level.[11] | |||||
| F5 | May 3, 1999 | Bridge Creek, Oklahoma | 281 mph (452 km/h) | 321 mph (517 km/h) | 321 mph (517 km/h) |
| In 2007, Joshua Wurman along with other researchers, published that a Doppler on Wheels recorded 135 m/s (300 mph; 490 km/h) approximately 32 metres (105 ft) above the radar level.[18][11] In 2021, Wurman along with other researchers, revised the data using improved techniques and published that the Doppler on Wheels actually recorded 321 miles per hour (517 km/h) in the tornado.[1][19] | |||||
2000–2009
edit| Official rating | Date | Location | Minimum peak wind speed | Maximum peak wind speed | Highest confirmed peak wind speed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| F0 | April 30, 2000 | Crowell, Texas | — | — | — |
| A Doppler on Wheels observed this tornado. This was the first of three tornadoes observed by the Doppler on Wheels near Crowell, Texas on April 30, 2000.[20] | |||||
| F0 | April 30, 2000 | Crowell, Texas | — | — | — |
| A Doppler on Wheels observed this tornado. This was the second of three tornadoes observed by the Doppler on Wheels near Crowell, Texas on April 30, 2000.[21] | |||||
| F0 | April 30, 2000 | Crowell, Texas | — | — | — |
| A Doppler on Wheels observed this tornado. This was the third of three tornadoes observed by the Doppler on Wheels near Crowell, Texas on April 30, 2000.[22] | |||||
| F1 | April 30, 2000 | Oklaunion, Texas | — | — | — |
| A Doppler on Wheels observed this F1 tornado.[23] | |||||
| F2 | May 29, 2004 | Geary, Oklahoma | — | — | 181 mph (291 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels recorded a peak wind gust of 81 m/s (180 mph; 290 km/h) at 6.5 m (21 ft) above the ground level.[24] | |||||
| F1 | May 29, 2004 | Calumet, Oklahoma | — | — | — |
| A Doppler on Wheels observed an anticyclonic F1 tornado near Calumet, Oklahoma.[25] | |||||
| F1 | May 13, 2005 | Truscott, Texas | — | — | 110 mph (180 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels observed the tornado and recorded a peak wind speed of 110 mph (180 km/h).[26] | |||||
| F3 | May 13, 2005 | Vera, Texas | — | — | 177 mph (285 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels recorded a peak wind speed of 177 mph (285 km/h) about 30 m (98 ft) above the ground level.[27] | |||||
| F0 | May 13, 2005 | Bomarton, Texas | — | — | 51 mph (82 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels recorded a peak wind speed of 51 mph (82 km/h) about 20 m (66 ft) above the ground level.[28] | |||||
| F2 | June 12, 2005 | Clairemont, Texas | 100 mph (160 km/h) | 201 mph (323 km/h) | 201 mph (323 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels observed the tornado through its entire life. The radar recorded winds of 100 mph (160 km/h), 145 mph (233 km/h), and 201 mph (323 km/h) at various heights ranging from 3–50 m (9.8–164.0 ft).[29] | |||||
| F0 | June 15, 2005 | Trego Center, Kansas | — | — | — |
| A Doppler on Wheels observed the tornado in an open field.[30] | |||||
| EF5 | May 4, 2007 | Greensburg, Kansas | — | — | 179 mph (288 km/h) |
| An X-band mobile radar owned by the University of Massachusetts (UMass X-Pol) observed the tornado for roughly 34 minutes after its birth. Recorded winds "exceeding 80 m/s" (179 mph; 288 km/h) were noted roughly 1.5 km above the radar level.[31] | |||||
| EF2 | June 5, 2009 | Goshen County, Wyoming | — | — | 271 mph (436 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels observed the entire lifecycle of an EF2 tornado in Goshen County, Wyoming. The radar also observed a peak wind speed of 271 mph (436 km/h) at 15–20 m (49–66 ft) above the ground level.[32] | |||||
2010–2019
edit| Official rating | Date | Location | Minimum peak wind speed | Maximum peak wind speed | Highest confirmed peak wind speed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EF5 | May 24, 2011 | Hinton, Oklahoma | 289 mph (465 km/h) | 296 mph (476 km/h) | 295.5 mph (475.6 km/h) |
| RaXPol recorded a wind gust of 124.8 m/s (279 mph; 449 km/h) about 200–230 feet (60–70 m) above the radar level.[33] However, this data was later revised to be 132.1 m/s (295 mph; 476 km/h) at 72 ft (22 m) above the radar level.[34][11] | |||||
| EF4 | May 18, 2013 | Rozel, Kansas | 165 mph (266 km/h) | 185 mph (298 km/h) | 185 mph (298 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels recorded "near surface" winds of between 165–185 mph (266–298 km/h).[35] | |||||
| EF2 | May 19, 2013 | Clearwater, Kansas | — | — | 155 mph (249 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels recorded winds of 155 mph (249 km/h) at 70 m (230 ft) above the ground level.[36] | |||||
| EF5 | May 20, 2013 | Moore, Oklahoma | — | — | 140 mph (230 km/h) |
| A PX-1000 transportable radar unit operated by University of Oklahoma's Advanced Radar Research Center was used to observe the path of the tornado through Moore, with researchers detailing a "loop" in the path near the Moore Medical Center as a "failed occlusion".[37] | |||||
| EF3 | May 28, 2013 | Bennington, Kansas | — | — | 264 mph (425 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels recorded winds of 264 mph (425 km/h) approximately 153 ft (47 m) above the ground level.[38] | |||||
| EF3 | May 31, 2013 | El Reno, Oklahoma | 291 mph (468 km/h) | 336 mph (541 km/h) | 313 mph (504 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels recorded winds between 257–336 mph (414–541 km/h) at or less than 100 metres (330 ft) above the radar level in a suction vortex inside the tornado.[11] This was later revised by the Doppler on Wheels team to 291–336 mph (468–541 km/h).[19] In 2015, Howard Bluestein, along with other researchers, reported that the radar did capture at least a moment of winds of 313 miles per hour (504 km/h).[39] | |||||
| EF3 | May 9, 2016 | Sulphur, Oklahoma | — | — | 218 mph (351 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels operated by the Center for Severe Weather Research recorded winds of 218 mph (351 km/h) at 17 m (56 ft) above the radar level.[40] | |||||
| EF2 | May 24, 2016 | Dodge City, Kansas | — | — | 201 mph (323 km/h) |
| While a Doppler on Wheels was observing the tornado, it documented winds of 40 m/s (89 mph; 140 km/h), which increased to at least 90 m/s (200 mph; 320 km/h) over a span of 21 seconds. These winds lasted less than one minute.[41] | |||||
| EF2 | May 20, 2019 | Mangum, Oklahoma | — | — | 122.7 mph (197.5 km/h) |
| The University of Oklahoma's RaXPol observed this tornado and recorded a maximum VROT of 106.6 kn (122.7 mph; 197.4 km/h).[42][43] | |||||
2023
edit| Official rating | Date | Location | Minimum peak wind speed | Maximum peak wind speed | Highest confirmed peak wind speed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EF4 | March 24, 2023 | Rolling Fork, Mississippi | — | — | 152 mph (245 km/h) |
| At least two mobile radars on the PERiLS Project observed the violent EF4 tornado at a height of 600–700 m (2,000–2,300 ft) above the radar level.[44] | |||||
2024
edit| Official rating | Date | Location | Minimum peak wind speed | Maximum peak wind speed | Highest confirmed peak wind speed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EF3 | April 26, 2024 | Harlan, Iowa | — | — | 224 mph (360 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels recorded a wind gust of ~79 m/s (180 mph) about 258 m (846 ft) above the radar level. Peak ground level wind speed was estimated around 224 mph (360 km/h).[45][46][47] | |||||
| EF2 | April 27, 2024 | Dexter, Kansas | — | — | — |
| A Doppler on Wheels observed an EF2 tornado near Dexter, Kansas.[48] | |||||
| EF1 | April 27, 2024 | Dexter, Kansas | — | — | — |
| A Doppler on Wheels observed an EF1 tornado near Dexter, Kansas.[48] | |||||
| EF2 | May 19, 2024 | Custer City, Oklahoma | — | — | 197 mph (317 km/h) |
| A Ka-band mobile radar unit from Texas Tech University recorded a 0-second gust of 87.9 m/s.[49] | |||||
| EF4 | May 21, 2024 | Greenfield, Iowa | 309 mph (497 km/h) | 318 mph (512 km/h) | ≥309 mph (497 km/h) |
| A Doppler on Wheels recorded winds of 263–271 mph (423–436 km/h) approximately 30–50 m (98–164 ft) above the radar level. Following calculations to more accurately determine peak wind speeds, it was published that ground-relative winds of 309–318 mph (497–512 km/h) could be observed briefly to the immediate east of the main circulation.[19] | |||||
| EF2 | May 22, 2024 | Temple, Texas | — | — | — |
| A Doppler on Wheels observed an EF2 tornado near Temple, Texas.[50] | |||||
| EF2 | May 23, 2024 | Duke, Oklahoma & Olustee, Oklahoma | — | — | 180 mph (290 km/h) |
| Two Doppler on Wheels scanned a large and long-lived EF2 tornado near Duke, Oklahoma.[51][52][53][54] A mobile radar from Texas Tech University recorded winds of 180 mph (290 km/h) less than 20 m (22 yd) above the surface.[55] | |||||
| EFU | May 25, 2024 | Windthorst, Texas | — | — | — |
| The University of Oklahoma’s RaXPol observed and documented a tornado near Windthorst, Texas.[56][57] | |||||
References
edit- ^ a b c d e f g Wurman, Joshua; Kosiba, Karen; Pereira, Brian; Robinson, Paul; Frambach, Andrew; Gilliland, Alycia; White, Trevor; Aikins, Josh; Trapp, Robert J.; Nesbitt, Stephen; Hanshaw, Maiana N.; Lutz, Jon (August 2021). "The Flexible Array of Radars and Mesonets (FARM)". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 102 (8): E1499–E1525. Bibcode:2021BAMS..102E1499W. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-20-0285.1. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
- ^ a b Pazmany, Andrew L.; Mead, James B.; Bluestein, Howard B.; Snyder, Jeffrey C.; Houser, Jana B. (1 July 2013). "A Mobile Rapid-Scanning X-band Polarimetric (RaXPol) Doppler Radar System". Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology. 30 (7): 1398–1413. Bibcode:2013JAtOT..30.1398P. doi:10.1175/JTECH-D-12-00166.1.
- ^ "OU Radar Program Builds Hi-Tech Radar". News9. 7 March 2019. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
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- ^ "New Radar Technology At OU Getting Attention Of U.S. Military". News9. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
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- ^ a b c "Flexible Array of Radars and Mesonets (FARM) statement concerning preliminary peak wind speed determinations based on Doppler On Wheels (DOW) data obtained in the Greenfield, Iowa tornado of 21 May 2024" (PDF). Champaign–Urbana metropolitan area: University of Illinois. 23 June 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 June 2024. Retrieved 24 June 2024.
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- ^ National Centers for Environmental Information (2005). "Kansas Event Report: F0 Tornado". Storm Events Database. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 26 June 2024.
- ^ Tanamachi, Robin L.; Bluestein, Howard B.; Houser, Jana B.; Frasier, Stephen J.; Hardwick, Kery M. (July 2012). "Mobile, X-band, Polarimetric Doppler Radar Observations of the 4 May 2007 Greensburg, Kansas, Tornadic Supercell". Monthly Weather Review. 140 (7). American Meteorological Society: 2103–2125. Bibcode:2012MWRv..140.2103T. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-11-00142.1.
- ^ Kosiba, Karen; Wurman, Joshua; Richardson, Yvette; Markowski, Paul; Robinson, Paul; Marquis, James (1 April 2013). "Genesis of the Goshen County, Wyoming, Tornado on 5 June 2009 during VORTEX2". Monthly Weather Review. 141 (4). American Meteorological Society: 1157–1181. Bibcode:2013MWRv..141.1157K. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-12-00056.1.
- ^ Houser, Jana Lesak; Bluestein, Howard B.; Snyder, Jeffrey C. (2016-11-01). "A Finescale Radar Examination of the Tornadic Debris Signature and Weak-Echo Reflectivity Band Associated with a Large, Violent Tornado". Monthly Weather Review. 144 (11): 4101–4130. Bibcode:2016MWRv..144.4101H. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-15-0408.1. ISSN 1520-0493.
- ^ Snyder, Jeffrey C.; Bluestein, Howard B. (2014-08-01). "Some Considerations for the Use of High-Resolution Mobile Radar Data in Tornado Intensity Determination". Weather and Forecasting. 29 (4): 799–827. Bibcode:2014WtFor..29..799S. doi:10.1175/WAF-D-14-00026.1. ISSN 1520-0434.
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- ^ Wurman, Joshua; Kosiba, Karen; Robinson, Paul; Marshall, Tim (2014-01-01). "The Role of Multiple-Vortex Tornado Structure in Causing Storm Researcher Fatalities". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 95 (1): 31–45. Bibcode:2014BAMS...95...31W. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00221.1.
- ^ Bluestein, Howard B.; Snyder, Jeffrey C.; Houser, Jana B. (2015-06-01). "A Multiscale Overview of the El Reno, Oklahoma, Tornadic Supercell of 31 May 2013". Weather and Forecasting. 30 (3): 525–552. Bibcode:2015WtFor..30..525B. doi:10.1175/WAF-D-14-00152.1. ISSN 1520-0434.
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- ^ Rizzotti, Giovanni. "More RAXPOL data, anyone? A view of the violent Mangum, Oklahoma tornado on May 20, 2019. Max VROT of 100.8 kts! #OKwx". 𝕏. @Gio_wx. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
- ^ Rizzotti, Giovanni. "Note: VROT of 100.8 kts occurred on this scan. The actual max VROT was 106.6 kts, which was the scan after". 𝕏. @Gio_wx. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
- ^ Kosiba, Karen A.; Lyza, Anthony W.; Trapp, Robert J.; Rasmussen, Erik N.; Parker, Matthew; Biggerstaff, Michael I.; Nesbitt, Stephen W.; Weiss, Christopher C.; Wurman, Joshua; Knupp, Kevin R.; Coffer, Brice; Chmielewski, Vanna C.; Dawson, Daniel T.; Bruning, Eric; Bell, Tyler M.; Coniglio, Michael C.; Murphy, Todd A.; French, Michael; Blind-Doskocil, Leanne; Reinhart, Anthony E.; Wolff, Edward; Schneider, Morgan E.; Silcott, Miranda; Smith, Elizabeth; Aikins, Joshua; Wagner, Melissa; Robinson, Paul; Wilczak, James M.; White, Trevor; Bodine, David; Kumjian, Matthew R.; Waugh, Sean M.; Alford, A. Addison; Elmore, Kim; Kollias, Pavlos; Turner, David D. (12 June 2024). "The Propagation, Evolution, and Rotation in Linear Storms (PERiLS) Project". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. -1 (aop). American Meteorological Society. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-22-0064.1.
- ^ Taylor, Cat (30 April 2024). "Doppler on Wheels BEST project surveyed Friday's tornadoes, aims to improve weather warnings". KTIV. NBC and The CW Plus. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
- ^ "Preliminary Wind Summary Measurements and Analysis from Harlan, IA tornado on Friday (26 April 2024)" (Post on 𝕏). 𝕏 (Formerly Twitter). University of Illinois: Doppler on Wheels. 28 April 2024. Retrieved 28 April 2024.
Winds of ~224 mph and diameter of max winds of ~2966 ft. Observations were taken as part of the @NSF -sponsored #BEST project led by @karen_kosiba and @JoshuaWurman
- ^ Kosiba, Karen (28 April 2024). "@DOWFacility research RE many peoples' questions" (Post on 𝕏). 𝕏 (Formerly Twitter). @karen_kosiba. Retrieved 29 April 2024.
These data: Height ~258 m ARL (see 2) Gate 12m/beam 122m, gusts ~1sec
- ^ a b "Up close with a tornado near Dexter, KS on Saturday, 27 April as part of the #BEST Project. (Doppler, Reflectivity, Rho-HV, Spectrum Width)" (Post on 𝕏). 𝕏 (formerly Twitter). Doppler on Wheels. 28 April 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
- ^ "Storm Events Database". National Centers for Environmental Information.
- ^ "Inside view of DOW deployed in Temple, TX, as tornado caused substantial damage. We are on the road this week collecting data for the @NSF #BEST project. #txwx". X (formerly Twitter). Doppler on Wheels. 23 May 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
- ^ "A deadly tornado and a rare feat for storm chasers". NBC News. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
- ^ "7-second update, low-level dual-Doppler data from DOW6 and DOW8 using 1-deg and 0.5-deg elevations and 25-m and 12-m gates covering most of the life cycle of the Duke, OK tornado. #okwx" (Post on X). X (formerly Twitter). Doppler on Wheels. 24 May 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
- ^ Kosiba, Karen (23 May 2024). "Scanning near Olustee, OK with @DOWFacility #okwx" (Post on X). X (formerly Twitter). @karen_kosiba. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
- ^
- "Quick look at tornado data collected by DOW8 near Olustee, OK. #okwx". X. Doppler on Wheels. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
- "Raw DOW6 velocity data collected near Olustee/Duke OK on Thursday, May 23 2024 as part of the @NSF #BEST project. Tornado was nearly stationary, then moving S/SE before arching to the N/NW. #okwx". X. Doppler on Wheels. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
- "View (raw Doppler Velocity) of the Olustee/Duke, OK tornado on Thursday, May 23, 2024 from DOW8 collected during the @NSF #BEST project. Combined with DOW6 data, 7-second dual-Doppler analyses can be done . #okwx". X. Doppler on Wheels. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
- ^ National Severe Storms Laboratory (3 July 2024). "GROUND LEVEL SCIENCE: LIFT CHASES TORNADO INSIGHT". NSSL News. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 16 July 2024.
- ^ RaXPol (26 May 2024). "Documented another tornado yesterday near Windthorst, TX!" (Post on X). X. University of Oklahoma. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
- ^ Emmerson, Sam. "Documented a decently strong tornado just E of Windthorst, TX with @raxpol today!". X. @ou_sams. Retrieved 25 June 2024.