Chetumal Province

The first settlements in Chetumal were established by Palaeo-indians before 8000 BC, during the Lithic Period of Mesoamerica.^{[note 4]} The first permanent settlements in Chetumal are believed to have been established by Maya farmers from the Guatemalan highlands by 2000 BC, during the Archaic period of Mesoamerica.^{[citation needed]} The first state or province encompassing Maya settlements in Chetumal is presumed to have been formed by 100 AD, during the Late Preclassic period of Mesoamerica.^{[citation needed]}

 

The completion of the Classic Maya collapse in Yucatan saw both the formation of Maya provinces and the imperial expansion of Chichen Itza over these provinces, or their constituent cities.^{[3][4][5][6][note 5]} The collapse does not seem to have been catastrophic in the (future) territory of Chetumal.^[7][8] At least twenty-five settlements in the area are known to have survived, most likely by reorienting economic activity towards the Chichen Itza-driven coasting trade.^{[9][10][note 6]} There is, nonetheless, evidence of limited social upheaval.^{[note 7]}

Chichen Itza, established by Itza settlers in circa 750–800 AD, was the most powerful city-state in the Yucatan peninsula until circa 1050–1100 AD.^{[11][12][13][note 8][note 9]} It appears to have started a sustained, and successful, programme of conquest in circa 900 AD, resulting in the formation of various provinces, possibly or likely including Chetumal.^{[5][3][6][note 10]}

 

Mayapan succeeded Chichen Itza as the most powerful city-state in Yucatan during k'atun 8 ahaw, equivalent either to 1080–1104 AD, or to 1185–1204 AD. Its rule lasted thirteen k'atuno'ob, thereby ending either during 1392–1416 AD, or 1441–1461 AD.^{[14][note 11][note 12]}

During circa 1450 to 1500 AD, Pachimalahix I, fifth ruler of the Acalan, led a military force to the Chetumal capital, and exacted tribute.^{[15][16][note 13]} Further details on this event remain obscure, though given the reputed commercial pre-eminence of the provincial capital at the time, it has been suggested that Pachimalahix I rather raided the city to settle trade-related damages, rather than actually having exacted tribute.^[17]

The first Spaniard known to have arrived in Chetumal was Gonzalo Guerrero, a sailor from Palos de la Frontera, Spain. In 1514, Guerrero entered the civil or military service in Chetumal. He was likely gifted to Gov. Kan as a slave by a batab or mayor from the Ekab Province.^{[18][note 14]} By 1519, Guerrero had fully assimilated to Maya culture, having married Gov. Kan's daughter and fathered three children with her. Guerrero would thereafter devise or at least contribute to the military strategy of Chetumal and other Maya states against at least three Spanish entradas.^[19]

Three events pre-dating the 1514 arrival of Guerrero to Chetumal have been proposed as marking the first contact by residents of Chetumal with Spaniards:

• The 1511 arrival of Guerrero and his marooned shipmates to Cozumel^{[20][note 15]}
• The 1508 voyage of Solís and Pinzón to Lake Izabal^[21][22][23]
• The 1502 voyage by Christopher Columbus to Guanaja

Maya settlements near Cozumel, Lake Izabal, and Guanaja are known to have been part of the riverine and coastal trading networks of merchants in Chetumal. Any knowledge of non-Indian people obtained by the former is thus presumed to have been passed on to the latter. It has further been suggested that the Ekab Province may have been allied with Chetumal.^[18]

Hispano-Maya hostilities commenced on 5 March 1517 in Cape Catoche, when an expeditionary force led by Francisco Hernández de Córdoba was ambushed by the military or militia of the Ekab Province, near that state's eponymous capital. The Hernández expedition were similarly received by neighbouring Maya polities, thereby foiling the expedition's pecuniary aims. ^{[24][note 16]}

The expeditionaries' reports of grand Maya cities would nonetheless spur further Cuban expeditions to Yucatan, including a 1518 trading and reconnoitering voyage by Juan de Grijalva and another in 1519 by Hernán Cortés, the latter of which quickly morphed into the 1519–1521 Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire and the 1519–1521 smallpox epidemic.^{[25][note 17]} The epidemic is presumed to have affected Chetumal severely. The reports likewise prompted the Governor of Cuba, who had commissioned the Hernández expedition, to petition and be granted letter patent authorising his conquest of the Maya states on behalf of the Charles I of Spain. The newly-minted adelantado, however, did not proceed with the conquest of Yucatan.^[26]

On 8 December 1526, the Salamancan conquistador Francisco de Montejo, who had participated in the Grijalva and Cortés expeditions from Cuba, was granted letters patent for the conquest of Yucatan and Cozumel by Charles I of Spain. Unlike Gov. Velázquez, former holder of the patent, Montejo promptly undertook the called-for conquest.^{[27][28][note 18]}

The adelantado named his close colleague, Alonso Dávila, likewise a participant in the Grijalva and Cortés expeditions from Cuba, the principal lieutenant for his entrada.^[29] They engaged 4 ships and over 250 men in Seville, from where they embarked in late June 1527, landing in Cozumel in late September 1527.^{[30][31][note 19]}

They watered in Cozumel for a few days, upon their warm reception by residents and Naum Pat, an influential batab or mayor in Cozumel, and thereafter proceeded to the mainland.^{[32][note 20]} They explored the immediate area, being well received by the nearby towns of Xelha and Zama, and founded a settlement, christened Salamanca, in October 1527.^[33] Their substantial demands for foodstuffs soon grew irksome to locals, upon which Salamanca saw their supplies dwindle.^[34] In late 1527 or early 1528, after a trying period of near-famine and disease, the Spanish moved northwards.^[35] With Naum Pat’s intercession, they were well received throughout the Ekab Province.^{[36][note 21]} They entered Chauaka, capital of the Chikinchel Province, in spring of 1528.^[37] A battle ensued, which Montejo won, thereby forcing Chikinchel to sue for peace.^[38] They next headed to Ake, where the Battle of Ake was likewise won by Montejo, after which they headed back to Salamanca, reaching it mid- or late summer 1528.^{[39][note 22]} Here, they were provisioned from Santo Domingo, whereupon they embarked on a combined entrada by land and sea southwards.^[40]

Montejo was to hug the coast with eight to ten men aboard the brigantine or caravel La Gavarra. Dávila was to take a parallel route by land, with the majority of the soldiers.^{[41][42] [note 23]} The provincial capital of Chetumal, which had been set as the parties’ rendezvous point, was first reached by Montejo.^{[41][note 24]} Unsure of the reception awaiting them, Montejo and his men kidnapped three or four residents under the cover of darkness to gather intelligence. Upon learning of Guerrero, now the nakom or commander-in-chief of the capital’s forces, Montejo dispatched one of the captives to the former, inviting the commander to break ranks and join the Spanish conquest. This being summarily spurned, the capital was prepared for battle.^[43] The commander’s strategy was apparently to keep the Dávila and Montejo parties separated.^{[note 25]} Guides were or had been sent, under pretence of alliance, to lead Dávila west of the capital, and thereafter inform him that the Montejo party had been lost. ^[44] The greater threat thus despatched, the capital turned towards Montejo. Feigning good will, residents ministered to Montejo and his men, and further informed the adelantado that the Dávila party had all perished. This bluff likewise worked, and the adelantado promptly set sail south towards Ulua River, and then back north towards Salamanca.^[45][46] Montejo soon discovered the ruse, and determined to gather reinforcements at Veracruz for a renewed offensive on Chetumal.^{[note 26]} He most likely set sail for that city in summer 1528.^{[47][note 27]}

In early 1531, the adelantado, having brought the Chakan, Can Pech, and Ah Canul Provinces under Spanish authority, promptly set about planning a renewed campaign towards Chetumal.^[48] Alonso Dávila was appointed to lead the expedition of circa fifty men.^{[49][50][note 28]}

Dávila set out from the provincial capital of Can Pech in mid-1531.^[51][50] They marched through the Mani and Cochuah Provinces unopposed, shortly thereafter reaching Chable, a town in the Waymil Province.^[52] Pre-eminent individuals in town promptly offered assistance, and were despatched to the provincial capital of Bacalar to summon the batab or mayor.^{[note 29]} The summons being rebuffed, Dávila marched on, leaving half of his men in Chable.^{[53][54][note 30][note 31]} They next reached Maçanahau, a large town close to Lake Bacalar. Being well received, Dávila and his men stayed here for three weeks, during which time the diplomatic aid of leading individuals from various provincial towns seems to have convinced the batab or mayor of Bacalar to not oppose the entrada.^{[55][56][note 32]} Consequently, the party continued their march to Bacalar unopposed. An overland march to Chetumal, Dávila soon found out, was not possible. Sea transport on several large canoes was thus arranged.^[57][58] They disembarked at Chetumal unopposed, as the capital had been deserted. Nevertheless, per his instructions, Dávila decided to found a town in Chetumal. The rest of the party, who had been left in Chable, were called for, and the new settlement at Chetumal christened Villa Real.^{[57][59][note 33]}

In the next two months, the Governor of Chetumal, Nachan Kan, rallied the provincial forces at Chequitaquil, a coastal town four leagues north of the capital. On learning this, Dávila ordered a pre-emptive strike. A unit of circa twenty-five soldiers took the encampment by surprise. The assault was a partial success, resulting in the death of many of the provinces men, imprisonment of over sixty, and dispersal of all others. The principal target, Gov. Kan, had nonetheless made his escape.^{[60][61][note 34]}

Now safely ensconced at the Chetumal capital (now Villa Real), Dávila set out with twenty men on a survey of the newly-Spanish territory towards Maçanahau. Upon reaching Bacalar, Dávila, to his great surprise, was informed that residents of Maçanahau and other provincial towns of Waymil had resolved to oppose him. The towns and their access roads had been barricaded. The opposition, though, was soon routed.^{[62][63][note 35]} In the meantime, the recently-conquered Cochuah Province had revolted. Dávila resupplied at Villa Real and set off with twenty-two men to suppress the revolt.^{[64][65][note 36]} Unlike the limited rebellion in Waymil, the Cochuah revolt proved serious and widespread, forcing Dávila to retreat to Villa Real.^[66][67] The Spanish settlement was now under heavy siege. With only some thirty men fit for combat, five horses, and depleting stores, their situation was precarious.^{[68][61][note 37]}

Dávila soon learnt of a sizeable convoy preparing to set sail near Villa Real for trade towards the Ulua River. He had the merchants and their articles seized.^{[note 38]} Since his prisoners included the son of the batab or mayor of Tapaen, a provincial town in Waymil, Dávila kept the son hostage and despatched two merchants to summon the mayor, who promptly called. The mayor was given a month to secure communication with the adelantado in the capital of the Can Pech Province, and promised his son in return. Believing his son would be released regardless, the mayor dallied. Upon learning of the mayor's ill faith, Dávila had him and his retinue tortured.^{[note 39]} To prove "whether the son had more love for the father, than the father had for the son," Dávila now despatched the mayor's son to the adelantado in Can Pech, keeping the mayor hostage.^[69] This arrangement also faltered.^{[70][note 40]}

The siege wore on for months, as it became increasingly clear to the men that the situation was untenable.^[71] In autumn 1532, Dávila and the cabildo or town council resolved to retreat to Trujillo by sea.^{[72][73][note 41]} They reached Puerto Caballos in spring 1533, after an arduous journey of seven months.^{[74][75][note 42]}

In April 1543, the Adelantado commissioned Gaspar Pacheco to conquer Chetumal and Waymil. Pacheco enlisted twenty-five to thirty men in Merida, and named Melchor Pacheco his principal subordinate, and Alonso Pacheco third in command.^{[76][note 43]} The expedition set out in late 1543 or early 1544.^[77]

Pacheco and his men first reached the Spanish-controlled Cochuah Province. Their demands on the war-stricken residents here proved impossible to meet. The party nonetheless impressed men and women as servants, and seized so much food as to reduce the province to famine.^[78] At this point, having fallen ill, Gaspar Pacheco tasked Melchor Pacheco, his second-in-command, with the conquest of Waymil and Chetumal.^{[78][79][note 44]}

Marching onwards to Waymil and Chetumal, the Pachecos soon discovered that residents had burnt their crops and fled to the woods, determined on guerrilla warfare to oppose them.^[80] Exasperated, the Pachecos now resorted to wanton acts of cruelty, including:

• clubbing captives to death,
• drowning captives,
• sicking dogs on unarmed civilians, and allowing the dogs to maul them to death, and
• mutilating captives.^{[81][note 45][note 46][note 47]}

The Spanish thus avoided a war of attrition. By early 1544, local opposition was so inconsequential as to convince the Pachecos to establish a town, christened Salamanca, in the ruins of Bacalar.^{[81][note 48]} The victory proved pyrrhic, as the entrada resulted in very significant depopulation of the Waymil and Chetumal Provinces, thereby ensuring the permanent poverty of Salamanca.^[82][83]

 

Chichen Itza is known to have (coercively) sponsored the pre-eminent worship of K'uk'ulkan.^{[84][note 49]} The Cult of K'uk'ulkan is thought to have been the first state religion to transcend linguistic and ethnic differences in Mesoamerica.^[85] The Cult is believed to have strengthened or been strengthened by the peninsular coasting trade.^[86]

It has been suggested that the province was home to a cult of Itzamna which focussed on the god's connection to large ocean creatures.^{[87][note 50]} He has featured prominently in material finds from Chetumal which, unusually, frequently depict him emerging from the jaws of sea creatures.^{[88][note 51]}

Chichen Itza is believed to have been governed either by a multepal or council of lords, or by a king and a privy council.^{[89][12][note 52][note 53]} It has been suggested that the city-state's realm was administered as a confederacy of provinces.^[90]

Mayapan is commonly held to have been ruled by a multepal or council of lords, composed of members from the Canul, Chel, Cocom, Cupul, and Xiu ch'ibalo'ob or noble houses.^{[91][90][92][93][note 54]} Its realm is believed to have been organised as a confederation of provinces, called the League of Mayapan, each of which was overseen by a kalwak or governor.^{[94][note 55][note 56]}

 

Chetumal's form of government as a sovereign province is presumed to have (i) remained significantly the same throughout its sovereign period, and (ii) not been significantly different from that of nearby provinces with a halach winik or governor, like Ceh Pech, Mani, and Sotuta.^[95]

Chetumal's head of state and government was the halach winik or governor, who would also have been the batab or mayor of the province's eponymous capital.^[95] His office and title (Ahaw or Lord) were hereditary, and his rule considered a divine right.^{[note 57]} The office's powers and duties included—

1. exacting tribute from cities, towns or hamlets,
2. conscripting men for military service in times of war,
3. conducting war,
4. sitting as the highest tribunal for inter-municipal conflicts,
5. officiating religious ceremonies of state.^[95]

At least one of Chetumal's later governors is known to have held authority over at least part of a neighbouring province (Waymil).^{[note 58]} This was likely effected through the threat of force, rather than diplomacy, as said authority was only reluctantly acceded to.^[96][53]

Immediately subject to the governor were the batabo'ob or mayors of the cities, towns and hamlets of the province.^{[note 59]} This office was likewise hereditary.^{[note 60]} The office's powers and duties included–

1. having a town farm kept for his pecuniary benefit,
2. keeping houses and farms in order,
3. sitting as a tribunal of original civil and criminal jurisdiction,
4. maintaining the military or militia in times of peace.^[95]

The constitution of local government has not been fully elucidated. The following offices were nonetheless known to have been involved in at least some cities, towns or hamlets—

1. nakomo'ob or commanders-in-chief, who exercised municipal military authority in the mayor's stead in times of war,
2. kuch kabo'ob or aldermen, who severally exercised at least executive authority over kuchteelo'ob or wards, and who jointly, in court or council assembled, exercised veto power over at least some of the mayor's executive, judicial, or military decisions^{[note 61]}
3. kulelo'ob or town officers, who carried out the mayor's orders.^{[note 62]}

Local government were also responsible for administering the commons, which included all municipal land, as private land ownership either did not exist or was forbidden.^{[note 63]} It is not clear whether non-municipal land within the province was likewise held in common.^[97]

At least since circa 1450, the provincial capital was a major port of call for the peninsular coasting trade from the Ulua River or the Bay Islands to the Ekab Province.^[98][99] It was, at least towards the Columbian period, a large town of circa 2,000 houses, abutted by sapodilla and cacao orchards, maize fields, and apiaries of stingless bees.^[100] Its merchant class fully occupied one-fourths of Nito, an out-of-province port of call on Dulce River.^[101] It traded the province's cacao, honey, wax, and marine products for obsidian, jade, turquoise, copper, and gold.^[99]

The province was the only significant cacao-producer in Yucatan.^[98] It provided the capital's merchants with cacao, honey, wax, and marine products.^[99] Articles for local consumption are thought to have included–

1. pottery from Lamanai and settlements on Honey Camp Lagoon,^[102]
2. salt and salted fish from settlements on the Northern River Lagoon.^{[103][note 64]}

 

 

None of Chetumal's records are extant.^{[note 65]} Consequently, all scholarship on the province has relied on later Hispano-Mayan records and modern archaeology.

Archaeological work in Chetumal was begun in early 1894 by Thomas Gann, a medical officer of colonial Belize, in the ruins of Santa Rita, Corozal.^{[104][105][106][107][note 66][note 67][note 68]} His copious work spurred further explorations and excavations in Belize and Mexico by the University of Liverpool, British Museum, Carnegie Institution, Field Museum, Sir J. E. S. Thompson, and Sylvanus Morley.^{[108][109][110][111][note 69]} He collaborated with Sir Thompson on Gann & Thompson 1931, the first panoptic survey of Maya history for the general public.^[112] His collections of Maya artefacts remain in the British Museum, George Gustav Heye Center, National Museums Liverpool, and Middle American Research Institute, with the British Museum receiving the first known collection of Maya jades.^{[113][114][115][note 70]} It has been suggested that his work prompted the first legislative protections for antiquities in colonial Belize in 1894, and their subsequent strengthening in 1897, 1924, and 1927.^{[116][117][note 71]}

After Dr. Gann, archaeological work in Chetumal languished until the 1964–1970 Altun Ha Expedition of the Royal Ontario Museum.^{[118][119][note 72][note 73]} The project was pushed for by the Archaeological Commissioner of colonial Belize, A. H. Anderson, and led by David M. Pendergast.^[120] The substantial corpus generated quickly prompted a renaissance of archaeological work in Chetumal, which has continued to the present day.^[121]

Historical work on the Postclassic Maya states was first published by the Merida-based polymath Juan Francisco Molina Solís in 1896.^{[122][note 74]} This was followed by the 1943 and 1957 publications of the Carnegie Mayanist, Ralph L. Roys.^{[122][note 75]} The latter of these has become the authoritative text on the subject, and is most commonly cited as the first of its kind, being significantly more rigorous and complete than preceding works.^{[123][124][note 76]} Despite this progress, Chetumal remained one of the least elucidated provinces until a seminal 1989 publication by Grant D. Jones, then a Professor at Davidson College.^[125][126]

 

The modern city of Chetumal, established 5 May 1898 by Vice-Admiral Othón P. Blanco, was named in honour of the eponymous Postclassic capital of the Chetumal Province.^[127]

The Guerrero–Kan family are widely believed to have been the first Mestizo family in the Americas.^[128] Various public works of art depicting them have been installed in Yucatan and Quintana Roo. These include:

• an untitled sculpture by Raúl Ayala Arellano, installed in Akumal in January 1975^[129]
• at least 25 replicas or near-replicas of the aforementioned Ayala Arellano sculpture, including one inaugurated on 16 November 1980 by the 58th President of Mexico, José López Portillo, in Merida^[130]
• Nacimiento de la raza mestiza (lit. Birth of the Mestizo Race) by Nereo de la Peña, a mural for the Palacio de Gobierno in Chetumal in 1979^[131]
• Forma, color e historia de Quintana Roo (lit. Form, Colour and History of Quintana Roo) by Elio Carmichael Jiménez, a mural inaugurated in Chetumal in 1981 by former Mexican President José López Portillo^[132]
• Alegoría del mestizaje (lit. Allegory of Miscegenation) by Carlos Terrés, a sculpture inaugurated in Chetumal on 1 April 1981, by the 1st Governor of Quintana Roo, Jesús Martínez Ross^[133]
• Cuna del mestizaje (lit. Trade of Miscegenation) by Rosa María Ponzanelly and Sergio Trejo, a sculpture inaugurated in Chetumal on 25 October 1996 by the 61st President of Mexico, Ernesto Zedillo^[134]
• La cuna del mestizaje by Rodrigo Siller, a mural installed 17 November 2007 in the Museum of Maya Culture, Chetumal^[132]
• Gonzalo Guerrero by Fernando Castro Pacheco, an oil painting for the Palacio de Gobierno in Merida^[132]

Cancun's residents, upon the arrival of Juan Carlos I and Queen Sofía of Spain on 16 November 1978, gifted the monarchs a turtleshell statuette of Gonzalo Guerrero.^[135][136] Quintana Roo's state anthem, introduced 14 January 1986, celebrates the Guerrero–Kan family.^[137][138] Othon P. Blanco's highest civic honour, introduced 29 September 1997, was named after Guerrero.^[139]

On 20 December 2012, the National Institute of Culture and History and the Belize Tourism Industry Association held a public re-enactment of the Guerrero-Kan wedding at Santa Rita, Corozal.^[140][141] Public re-enactments have been held on 22 March 2014, 5 February 2015, 20 February 2016, 6 July 2017, 19 May 2018, and 29 March 2019.^{[142][143][144]}

18°05′N 88°26′W / 18.09°N 88.43°W / 18.09; -88.43