Vanadium cycle

The global vanadium cycle is controlled by physical and chemical processes that drive the exchange of vanadium between its two main reservoirs: the upper continental crust and the ocean.^[1] Anthropogenic processes such as coal and petroleum production release vanadium to the atmosphere.

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Vanadium is a trace metal that is relatively abundant in the Earth (~100 part per million in the upper crust).^[1] Vanadium is mobilized from minerals through weathering and transported to the ocean. Vanadium can enter the atmosphere through wind erosion and volcanic emissions^[1] and will remain there until it is removed by precipitation.^[1]

Human activity has increased the amount of vanadium emissions to the atmosphere.^[2] Vanadium is abundant in fossil fuels because it is incorporated in porphyrins during organic matter degradation.^[3] Coal and petroleum factory pollution release significant vanadium to the atmosphere.^[1] Vanadium is also mined and using for industrial purposes including for steel reinforcement, electronics, and batteries.^[1]

Vanadium is removed from the ocean by burial marine sediments and incorporation into iron oxides at hydrothermal vents.^[1][4]

Biological processes play a relatively minor role in the global vanadium cycle. Vanadium bromoperoxidase is present in some marine bacteria and algae.^[5] Vanadium can also takes the place of molybdenum in alternative nitrogenases.^[6]

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Schlesinger, William H.; Klein, Emily M.; Vengosh, Avner (2017). "Global biogeochemical cycle of vanadium". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (52): E11092–E11100. doi:10.1073/pnas.1715500114. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5748214. PMID 29229856.
2. ^ Hope, Bruce K. (1997). "An assessment of the global impact of anthropogenic vanadium". Biogeochemistry. 37 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1023/A:1005761904149. ISSN 1573-515X. S2CID 93183351.
3. ^ Zhao, Xu; Xu, Chunming; Shi, Quan (2016), Xu, Chunming; Shi, Quan (eds.), "Porphyrins in Heavy Petroleums: A Review", Structure and Modeling of Complex Petroleum Mixtures, Structure and Bonding, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 39–70, doi:10.1007/430_2015_189, ISBN 978-3-319-32321-3
4. ^ Trefry, John H.; Metz, Simone (1989). "Role of hydrothermal precipitates in the geochemical cycling of vanadium". Nature. 342 (6249): 531–533. Bibcode:1989Natur.342..531T. doi:10.1038/342531a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 4351410.
5. ^ Butler, Alison (1998). "Vanadium haloperoxidases". Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 2 (2): 279–285. doi:10.1016/S1367-5931(98)80070-7. ISSN 1367-5931. PMID 9667930.
6. ^ Eady, Robert R. (1996). "Structure−Function Relationships of Alternative Nitrogenases". Chemical Reviews. 96 (7): 3013–3030. doi:10.1021/cr950057h. ISSN 0009-2665. PMID 11848850.