Bengal Subah

Bengal Province সুবাহ বাংলা صوبه بنگاله
1576–1793
Flag of Nawab of Bengal after 1717
Map of the Bengal Subah in 1733
Status	Province of the Mughal Empire (1576–1765) Independent state (1717–1757) British puppet state (1757–1793)
Capital	Tanda (1576–1590)[1] Akbarnagar (1595–96; 1639–1660)[2] Jahangirnagar (1608–39; 1660–1711)[3] Murshidabad (1711–1763; 1765–1793) Munger (1763–1765)
Common languages	Persian (official) Bengali (official) Arabic (religious)
Religion	Islam (official)[4][5] Hinduism and other Indian religions (minority)
Government	Viceroyalty (1576–1717) Absolute monarchy (1717–1757) Oligarchy with restricted monarchial figurehead (1757–1803)
Subahdars/Nawab Nazims (see below)
Historical era	Early modern period
• Battle of Raj Mahal	12 July 1576
• Baro Bhuiyan revolt	1571–1611
• Establishment of Jahangirnagar	1608
• Self-governance	1717
• Maratha invasions	April 1741–March 1751
• Battle of Plassey	23 June 1757
• Battle of Buxar	22–23 October 1764
• Treaty of Allahabad	16 August 1765
• Grant of administration and judiciary to Company	1793
• Disestablished	1793
Currency	Taka
Preceded by Succeeded by 1576: Bengal Sultanate 1610: Baro Bhuiyan 1666: Portuguese Chittagong Kingdom of Mrauk U Bengal Presidency
Today part of	Bangladesh India Myanmar

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Timeline
Prehistoric Madrasian culture Soanian, c. 500,000 BCE Neolithic, c. 7600 – c. 1000 BCE Bhirrana 7570 – 6200 BCE Jhusi 7106 BCE Lahuradewa 7000 BCE Mehrgarh 7000 – 2600 BCE South Indian Neolithic 3000 – 1000 BCE
Ancient Indus Valley Civilization, c. 3300 – c. 1700 BCE Post Indus Valley Period (Cemetery H Culture), c. 1700 – c. 1500 BCE Vedic civilization, c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE Kuru kingdom, c. 1200 – c. 500 BCE Early Vedic period Rise of Śramaṇa movement Later Vedic Period Spread of Jainism – Parshvanatha Spread of Jainism – Mahavira Rise of Buddhism Kingdom of Magadha Brihadratha Dynasty 1700 – 682 BCE Haryanka Dynasty 544 – 413 BCE Shaishunaga Dynasty 413 – 345 BCE Nanda Dynasty, 345 – 322 BCE Mahajanapadas, c. 600 – 345 BCE
Classical Kingdom of Magadha Maurya Dynasty, 322 – 185 BCE Pandya Dynasty, 320 BCE - 280 CE Shunga Dynasty, 185 – 73 BCE Kanva Dynasty, 73 – 28 BCE Sangam period 300 BCE – 400 CE Kushan Dynasty, c. 30 – c. 375 CE Satavahana Dynasty, c. 228 BCE – c. 224 CE Gupta Dynasty, c. 240 – c. 550 CE
Early medieval Pallava dynasty, 275 CE - 897 CE Chalukya Dynasty, 543 – 753 CE Pandya Dynasty, 590 CE - 920 CE Harsha's Dynasty, c. 606 CE – c. 647 CE Karakota Dynasty, c. 724 – c. 760 CE Arab Invasion, c. 738 CE Tripartite Struggle, c. 760 – c. 973 CE Pratihara dynasty Rastrakuta Dynasty Pala Dynasty Chola Dynasty, c. 848 – c. 1251 CE 2nd Chalukya Dynasty, c. 973 – c. 1187 CE
Late medieval Delhi Sultanate, 1206 – 1526 CE Mamluk Dynasty Khalji Dynasty Tugluq Dynasty Sayyid Dynasty Lodhi Dynasty Pandyan Empire, 1251 – 1618 CE Vijayanagara, 1336 – 1646 CE Bengal Sultanate, 1342 – 1576 CE
Early modern Mughal Dynasty, 1526 – 1540 CE Suri Dynasty, 1538/40 – 1556 CE Mughal Dynasty, 1556 – 1857 CE Bengal Subah, c. 1576 – c. 1757 CE Maratha Empire, c. 1674 – c. 1818 CE Company Raj, c. 1757 – c. 1858 CE Kingdom of Mysore, c. 1760 – c. 1799 CE Sikh Empire, c. 1799 – c. 1849 CE
Modern The Great Rebellion, 1857 – 1858 CE British Raj, 1858 – 1947 CE Independence Movement Independent India, 1947 CE – present Dominion of India, 1947 – 1950 CE Republic of India, 1950 CE – present
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The Bengal Subah (Bengali: সুবাহ বাংলা. Persian: صوبه بنگاله.), also referred to as Mughal Bengal, was the largest subdivision of Mughal India encompassing much of the Bengal region, which includes modern-day Bangladesh, the Indian state of West Bengal, and some parts of the present-day Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha between the 16th and 18th centuries. The state was established following the dissolution of the Bengal Sultanate, a major trading nation in the world, when the region was absorbed into the Mughal Empire. Bengal was the wealthiest region in the Indian subcontinent.

Bengal Subah has been variously described the "Paradise of Nations"^[6] and the "Golden Age of Bengal".^[7] It alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia.^[8] The eastern part of Bengal was globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding,^[9] and it was a major exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter, and agricultural and industrial produce in the world.^[10] The region was also the basis of the Anglo-Bengal War.^[11]

By the 18th century, Bengal emerged as a semi-independent state, under the rule of the Nawabs of Bengal, who acted on Mughal sovereignty. It started to undergo proto-industrialization, making significant contributions to the first Industrial Revolution,^{[12][13][14][15]} especially industrial textile manufacturing. In 1757 and 1764, the Company defeated the Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey and the Battle of Buxar, and Bengal came under British influence. It was deindustrialized^{[12][13][14][10]} after being conquered by the British East India Company. In 1765, Emperor Shah Alam II granted the office of the Diwani of Bengal (second-highest office in a province, included revenue rights) to the Company and the office of the Nizamat of Bengal (highest office, administrative and judicial rights) in 1793.^[16] The Nawab of Bengal, who previously possessed both these offices, was now formally powerless and became a titular monarch.

Bengal's physical features gave it such a fertile soil, and a favourable climate that it became a terminus of a continent-wide process of Turko-Mongol conquest and migration, informs Prof. Richard Eaton.^[17]

The Mughal absorption of Bengal began during the reign of the first Mughal emperor Babur. In 1529, Babur defeated Sultan Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah of the Bengal Sultanate during the Battle of Ghaghra. Babur later annexed parts of Bengal. His son and successor Humayun occupied the Bengali capital Gaur, where he stayed for six months.^[18] Humayun was later forced to seek in refuge in Persia because of Sher Shah Suri's conquests. Sher Shah Suri briefly interrupted the reigns of both the Mughals and the Bengal Sultans.

The Mughal conquest of Bengal began with the victory of Akbar's army over Sultan of Bengal Daud Khan Karrani, the independent ruler of the province, at the Battle of Tukaroi on 3 March 1575. After the final defeat of Daud Karrani at the Battle of Rajmahal the following year,^[19] Mughal Emperor Akbar announced the creation of Bengal as one of the original twelve Subahs (top-level provinces), bordering Bihar Subah and Orissa subah, as well as Burma.^{[citation needed]} It took many years to overcome the resistance of ambitious and local chiefs. By a royal decree in November 1586, Akbar introduced uniform subah administration throughout the empire. However, in historian Tapan Raychaudhuri's view, "the consolidation of Mughal power in Bengal and the pacification of the province really began in 1594".^[20]

Many of the chiefs subjugated by the Mughals, some of the Baro-Bhuyans in particular, were upstarts who grabbed territories during the transition from Afghan to Mughal rule, but others, such as the Rajas of Chandradwip, Malla, and Shushang, were older families who had ruled independently from time immemorial.^[21] By the 17th century, the Mughals subdued opposition from the Baro-Bhuyans landlords, notably Isa Khan. Bengal was integrated into a powerful and prosperous empire; and shaped by imperial policies of pluralistic government. The Mughals built a new imperial metropolis in Dhaka from 1610, with well-developed fortifications, gardens, tombs, palaces and mosques. It served as the Mughal capital of Bengal for 75 years.^[22] The city was renamed in honour of Emperor Jahangir.

The Mughal conquest of Chittagong in 1666 defeated the (Burmese) Kingdom of Arakan and reestablished Bengali control of the port city, which was renamed as Islamabad.^[23] The Chittagong Hill Tracts frontier region was made a tributary state of Mughal Bengal and a treaty was signed with the Chakma Circle in 1713.^[24]

Between 1576 and 1717, Bengal was ruled by a Mughal Subahdar (imperial governor). Members of the imperial family were often appointed to the position. Viceroy Prince Shah Shuja was the son of Emperor Shah Jahan. During the struggle for succession with his brothers Prince Aurangazeb, Prince Dara Shikoh and Prince Murad Baksh, Prince Shuja proclaimed himself as the Mughal Emperor in Bengal. He was eventually defeated by the armies of Aurangazeb. Shuja fled to the Kingdom of Arakan, where he and his family were killed on the orders of the King at Mrauk U. Shaista Khan was an influential viceroy during the reign of Aurangazeb. He consolidated Mughal control of eastern Bengal. Prince Muhammad Azam Shah, who served as one of Bengal's viceroys, was installed on the Mughal throne for four months in 1707. Viceroy Ibrahim Khan II gave permits to English and French traders for commercial activities in Bengal. The last viceroy Prince Azim-us-Shan gave permits for the establishment of the British East India Company's Fort William in Calcutta, the French East India Company's Fort Orleans in Chandernagore and the Dutch East India Company's fort in Chinsura. During Azim-us-Shan's tenure, his prime minister Murshid Quli Khan emerged as a powerful figure in Bengal. Khan gained control of imperial finances. Azim-us-Shan was transferred to Bihar. In 1717, the Mughal Court upgraded the prime minister's position to the hereditary Nawab of Bengal. Khan founded a new capital in Murshidabad. His descendants formed the Nasiri dynasty. Alivardi Khan founded a new dynasty in 1740. The Nawabs ruled over a territory which included Bengal proper, Bihar and Orissa.

The Nawab of Bengal^{[25][26][27][28]} was the hereditary ruler of Bengal Subah in Mughal India. The Nawab of a princely state or autonomous province is comparable to the European title of Grand Duke. In the early 18th-century, the Nawab of Bengal was the de facto independent ruler of some part of Bengal and other parts were ruled by Bengal Rajas such as Bardhaman Raj, Cooch Behar State which constitute the modern-day sovereign country of Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal.^[29][30][31] They are often referred to as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.^[32] The nawabs were based in Murshidabad which was centrally located within Bengal. The nawabs continued to issue coins in the name of the Mughal Emperor. But for all practical purposes, the nawabs governed as independent monarchs.^{[citation needed]} Under the early nawabs, Bengal became the financial backbone of the Mughal court, contributing more than half the funds that flowed into the imperial treasury in Delhi.^[33]

The Rajas of Bengal, Nawabs of Bengal oversaw a period of proto-industrialization. The Bengal-Bihar-Orissa triangle was a major production center for cotton muslin cloth, silk cloth, shipbuilding, gunpowder, saltpetre, and metalworks. Factories were set up in Murshidabad, Dhaka, Patna, Sonargaon, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Cossimbazar, Balasore, Pipeli, and Hugli among other cities, towns, and ports. The region became a base for the British East India Company, the French East India Company, the Danish East India Company, the Austrian East India Company, the Ostend Company, and the Dutch East India Company.

The British company eventually rivaled the authority of the Nawabs. In the aftermath of the siege of Calcutta in 1756, in which the Nawab's forces overran the main British base, the East India Company dispatched a fleet led by Robert Clive who defeated the last independent Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Mir Jafar was installed as the puppet Nawab. His successor Mir Qasim attempted in vain to dislodge the British. The defeat of Nawab Mir Qasim of Bengal, Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula of Oudh, and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II at the Battle of Buxar in 1764 paved the way for British expansion across India. The South Indian Kingdom of Mysore led by Tipu Sultan overtook the Nawab of Bengal as the subcontinent's wealthiest monarchy; but this was short-lived and ended with the Anglo-Mysore War. The British then turned their sights on defeating the Marathas and Sikhs.

The Nawabs of Bengal entered into treaties with numerous European colonial powers, including joint-stock companies representing Britain, Austria, Denmark, France and the Netherlands.

The resurgent Maratha Empire launched raids against Bengal in the 18th century, which further added to the decline of the Nawabs of Bengal. The Bengal Subah was met by a series of face to face confrontations by the Maratha Empire including the First Battle of Katwa, the Second Battle of Katwa, the Battle of Burdwan and the Battle of Rani Sarai where Nawab Alivardi Khan defeated the Marathas and repelled their attacks.^[7][34] The Maratha raids lasted a decade from 1741 to early 1751.

The Marathas committed many atrocities across Bengal causing many to flee from West Bengal to East Bengal.^[35] 400,000 civilian Bengalis were massacred by the Bargis (Maratha warriors) including textile weavers, silk winders, and mulberry cultivators^[36][37] causing widespread economic devastation for the proto-industrializing textile-based economy of Bengal.^{[12][13][14][15]} Many Bengalis were mutilated and contemporary accounts describe the scene of mass gang-rape against women.^[38] Alivardi Khan the Nawab of Bengal fearing even worse devastation and destruction agreed to pay Rs. 1.2 million of tribute annually as the chauth of Bengal and Bihar to the Marathas, and the Marathas agreed not to invade Bengal again.

The expeditions, led by Raghuji Bhonsle of Nagpur, also established de facto Maratha control over Orissa, which was formally incorporated in the Maratha Empire in 1752.^[39][40] The Nawab of Bengal also paid Rs. 3.2 million to the Marathas, towards the arrears of chauth for the preceding years.^[41] The chauth was paid annually by the Nawab of Bengal to the Marathas up to 1758, until the British occupation of Bengal.^[42]

By the late-18th century, the British East India Company emerged as the foremost military power in the region, defeating the French-allied Siraj-ud-Daulah at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, that was largely brought about by the betrayal of the Nawab's once trusted general Mir Jafar. The company gained administrative control over the Nawab's dominions, including Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. It gained the right to collect taxes on behalf of the Mughal Court after the Battle of Buxar in 1765. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were made part of the Bengal Presidency and annexed into the British colonial empire in 1793. The Indian mutiny of 1857 formally ended the authority of the British East India Company, when the British Raj replaced Company rule in India.

Other European powers also carved out small colonies on the territory of Bengal, including the Dutch East India Company's Dutch Bengal settlements, the French colonial settlement in Chandernagore, the Danish colonial settlement in Serampore and the Habsburg monarchy Ostend Company settlement in Bankipur.

According to João de Barros, Bengal enjoyed military supremacy over Arakan and Tripura due to good artillery.^[43] Its forces possessed notable large cannons. It was also a major exporter of gunpowder and saltpeter to Europe.^[44][45] The Mughal Army built fortifications across the region, including Idrakpur Fort, Sonakanda Fort, Hajiganj Fort, Lalbagh Fort and Jangalbari Fort. The Mughals expelled Arakanese and Portuguese pirates from the northeastern coastline of the Bay of Bengal. Throughout the late medieval and early modern periods, Bengal was notable for its navy and shipbuilding. The following table covers a list of notable military engagements by Mughal Bengal:

Conflict	Year(s)	Leader(s)	Enemy	Result
Battle of Tukaroi	1575	Akbar	Bengal Sultanate	Mughal (Bengal Subah) victory
Battle of Raj Mahal	1576	Khan Jahan I	Bengal Sultanate	Mughal (Bengal Subah) victory
Conquest of Bhati	1576–1611	Khan Jahan I Shahbaz Khan Kamboh Man Singh	Baro-Bhuyan	Mughal (Bengal Subah) victory
Ahom-Mughal conflicts	1615–1682	Qasim Khan Chishti Mir Jumla Ram Singh I	Ahom kingdom	Mixed [46]
Mughal-Arakan War	1665–66	Shaista Khan	Kingdom of Mrauk U Portuguese Empire (Portuguese settlement in Chittagong)	Mughal (Bengal Subah) victory
(Bengal Subah Dynasty Change) Battle of Giria	26 April 1740	Sarfaraz Khan Ghaus Khan Haji Lutfullah Alam Chand (betrayed Sarfaraz Khan in battle)	Alivardi Khan	Alivardi Khan Victory
First Battle of Katwa	1742	Alivardi Khan Ghulam Mustafa Khan Mirza Beg	Maratha Confederacy	Bengali Victory
Second Battle of Katwa	December 1745	Alivardi Khan	Maratha Confederacy Nagpur state	Bengali Victory
Second Battle of 'Midnapur'	1746	Alivardi Khan	Maratha Confederacy Sayyids of Orissa	Bengali Victory
Battle of Burdwan	January 1747	Alivardi Khan	Maratha Confederacy Nagpur state	Bengali Victory
Battle of Rani Sarai	1748	Alivardi Khan Siraj-ud-daulah Mir Qasim Haider Ali Khan Bahadur Ali Khan Shaikh Din Muhammad Fakirullah Beg Nurullah Beg Dost Muhammad Khan	Maratha Empire Nagpur State Afghans Of Bihar	Bengali Victory
Siege of Calcutta	20 June 1756	Siraj-ud-Daula Mir Jafar	British Empire	Bengali Victory
Battle of Plassey	1757	Siraj-ud-Daulah	British Empire Mir Jafar (defected to the British)	British victory

• 
  Daud Khan receives a robe from Munim Khan
• 
  Bibi Mariam Cannon
• 
  Jahan Kosha Cannon
• 
  Battle of Chittagong in 1666 between the Mughals and Arakanese

Mughal architecture proliferated Bengal in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, with the earliest example being the Kherua Mosque in Bogra (1582).^[34] They replaced the earlier sultanate-style of architecture. It was in Dhaka that the imperial style was most lavishly indulged in.^{[citation needed]} Its Lalbagh Fort was an elaborately designed complex of gardens, fountains, a mosque, a tomb, an audience hall (Diwan-i-Khas) and a walled enclosure with gates. The Great Caravanserai and Shaista Khan Caravanserai in Dhaka were centres of commercial activities. Other monuments in the city include the Dhanmondi Shahi Eidgah (1640), the Sat Gambuj Mosque (c. 1664–76), the Shahbaz Khan Mosque (1679) and the Khan Mohammad Mridha Mosque (1704).^[34] The city of Murshidabad also became a haven of Mughal architecture under the Nawabs of Bengal, with the Caravanserai Mosque (1723) being its most prominent monument.

In rural hinterlands, the indigenous Bengali Islamic style continued to flourish, blended with Mughal elements. One of the finest examples of this style is the Atiya Mosque in Tangail (1609).^[34] Several masterpieces of terracotta Hindu temple architecture were also created during this period. Notable examples include the Kantajew Temple (1704) and the temples of Bishnupur (1600–1729).

An authentic Bengali art was reflected in the muslin fabric of Jamdani (meaning "flower" in Persian). The making of Jamdani was pioneered by Persian weavers. The art passed to the hands of Bengali Muslim weavers known as juhulas. The artisan industry was historically based around the city of Dhaka. The city had over 80,000 weavers. Jamdanis traditionally employ geometric designs in floral shapes. Its motifs are often similar to those in Iranian textile art (buta motif) and Western textile art (paisley). Dhaka's jamdanis enjoyed a loyal following and received imperial patronage from the Mughal court in Delhi and the Nawabs of Bengal.^[49][10]

A provincial Bengali style of Mughal painting flourished in Murshidabad during the 18th century. Scroll painting and ivory sculptures were also prevalent.

• 
  Jamdani muslin is a legacy of Mughal Bengal
• 
  Murshidabad-style painting of a woman playing a rudra veena
• 
  Scroll painting of a Ghazi riding a Bengal tiger

Bengal's population is estimated to have been 30 million prior to the Great Bengal famine of 1770, which reduced it by as much as a third.^[50]

Bengal was an affluent province with Bengali Muslim as the official religion and constituted a significant minority following a Bengali Hindu majority.^[12]

There was a significant influx of migrants from the Safavid Empire into Bengal during the Mughal period. Persian administrators and military commanders were enlisted by the Mughal government in Bengal.^[51] An Armenian community settled in Dhaka and was involved in the city's textile trade, paying a 3.5% tax.^[52]

The Bengal Subah had the largest regional economy in that period. It was described as the paradise of nations.^{[citation needed]} The region exported grains, fine cotton muslin and silk, liquors and wines, salt, ornaments, fruits, and metals.^[54] European companies set up numerous trading posts in Bengal during the 17th and 18th centuries. Dhaka was the largest city in Bengal and the commercial capital of the empire.^{[citation needed]} Chittagong was the largest seaport, with maritime trade routes connecting it to Arakan, Ayuthya, Aceh, Melaka, Johore, Bantam, Makassar, Ceylon, Bandar Abbas, Mocha and the Maldives.^[55]

Parthasarathi estimates that grain wages for weaving and spinning in Bengal and Britain were comparable in the mid 18th century.^[56] However, due to the scarcity of data, more research is needed before drawing any conclusions.^[57]

Bengal had many traders and bankers. Among them was the Jagat Seth Family, who were the wealthiest bankers in the region.

The Mughals launched a vast economic development project in the Bengal delta which transformed its demographic makeup.^[58] The government cleared vast swathes of forest in the fertile Bhati region to expand farmland. It encouraged settlers, including farmers and jagirdars, to populate the delta. It assigned Sufis as the chieftains of villages. Emperor Akbar re-adapted the modern Bengali calendar to improve harvests and tax collection. The region became the largest grain producer in the subcontinent.

There are sparse accounts of the Bengal revenue administration in Abul Fazl's Ain-i-Akbari and some in Mirza Nathan's Baharistan-i-Ghaibi.^[59] According to the former,

The demands of each year are paid by instalments in eight months, they (the ryots) themselves bringing mohurs and rupees to the appointed place for the receipt of revenue, as the division of grain between the government and the husbandman is not here customary. The harvests are always abundant, measurement is not insisted upon, and the revenue demands are determined by estimate of the crop.^[59]

In contrast, the Baharistan says there were two collections per year, following the spring and autumn harvests. It also says that, at least in some areas, revenue demands were based on survey and land measurement.^[59]

Bengali peasants were quick to adapt to profitable new crops between 1600 and 1650. Bengali peasants rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk-producing region of the world.^[60]

The increased agricultural productivity led to lower food prices. In turn, this benefited the Indian textile industry. Compared to Britain, the price of grain was about one-half in South India and one-third in Bengal, in terms of silver coinage. This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets.^[61]

In the 17th century, Bengal was an affluent province that was, according to economic historian Indrajit Ray, globally prominent in industries such as textile manufacturing and shipbuilding.^[9] Bengal's capital city of Dhaka was the empire's financial capital, with a population exceeding a million people, and with an estimated 80,000 skilled textile weavers. It was an exporter of silk and cotton textiles, steel, saltpeter, and agricultural and industrial produce.^[10] Bengal's mining, metallurgy, and shipping in this era have been described as proto-industrialization.^[62]

Many historians have built on the perspective of R. C. Dutt who wrote, "The plunder of Bengal directly contributed to the Industrial Revolution in Britain."^{[12][13][14][15]} This analysis states that the capital amassed from Bengal was used to invest in British industries such as textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution and greatly increase British wealth, while at the same time leading to deindustrialization in Bengal.^{[12][13][14][10]} According to Indrajit Ray, domestic industries expanded for decades even after Plassey. Although colonial-based price manipulation and state discrimination initiated from the 1790s, Bengal's industries retained some comparative advantages. Ray states that "Bengali entrepreneurs continued in industries such as cotton and silk textiles where there were domestic market supports", and major deindustrialisation occurred as late as the 1830s to 1850s.^[63]

Bengal was a centre of the worldwide muslin, jute and silk trades. During this era, the most important center of jute and cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia.^[64] Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.^[8] From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.^[65] The jute trade was also a significant factor.

Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry. Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.^[66] He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.^[66]

An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a flushed deck design in Bengal rice ships, resulting in hulls that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped deck design. The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution.^[67]

In the revenue settlement by Todar Mal in 1582, Bengal Subah was divided into 24 sarkars (districts), which included 19 sarkars of Bengal proper and 5 sarkars of Orissa. In 1607, during the reign of Jahangir Orissa became a separate Subah. These 19 sarkars were further divided into 682 parganas.^[68] In 1658, subsequent to the revenue settlement by Shah Shuja, 15 new sarkars and 361 new parganas were added. In 1722, Murshid Quli Khan divided the whole Subah into 13 chakalahs, which were further divided into 1660 parganas.^{[citation needed]}

Initially the capital of the Subah was Tanda.^{[citation needed]} On 9 November 1595, the foundations of a new capital were laid at Rajmahal by Man Singh I who renamed it Akbarnagar.^[69] In 1610 the capital was shifted from Rajmahal to Dhaka^[70] and it was renamed Jahangirnagar. In 1639, Shah Shuja again shifted the capital to Rajmahal. In 1660, Muazzam Khan (Mir Jumla) again shifted the capital to Dhaka. In 1703, Murshid Quli Khan, then diwan (prime minister in charge of finance) of Bengal shifted his office from Dhaka to Maqsudabad and later renamed it Murshidabad.^{[citation needed]}

In 1656, Shah Shuja reorganised the sarkars and added Orissa to the Bengal Subah.^{[citation needed]}

The sarkars (districts) and the parganas/mahallahs (tehsils) of Bengal Subah were:^[68]

Sarkar	Pargana
Udamabar/Tanda (modern-day areas include North Birbhum, Rajmahal and Murshidabad)	52 parganas
Jannatabad (Lakhnauti) (Modern day Malda division)	66 parganas
Fatehabad	31 parganas
Mahmudabad (modern-day areas include North Nadia and Jessore)	88 parganas
Khalifatabad	35 parganas
Bakla	4 parganas
Purniyah	9 parganas
Tajpur (East Dinajpur)	29 parganas
Ghoraghat (South Rangpur Division, Bogura)	84 parganas
Pinjarah	21 parganas
Barbakabad (West Dinajpur)	38 parganas
Bazuha	32 parganas
Sonargaon modern day Dhaka Division	52 parganas
Srihatta	8 mahals
Chittagong	7 parganas
Sharifatabad	26 parganas
Sulaimanabad	31 parganas
Satgaon (Modern day Hooghly District and Howrah District)	53 parganas
Mandaran	16 parganas

Sarkars of Orissa:

Sarkar	Mahal
Jaleswar	28
Bhadrak	7
Kotok (Cuttack)	21
Kaling Dandpat	27
Raj Mahendrih	16

The state government was headed by a Viceroy (Subedar Nizam) appointed by the Mughal Emperor between 1576 and 1717. The Viceroy exercised tremendous authority, with his own cabinet and four prime ministers (Diwan). The three deputy viceroys for Bengal proper, Bihar and Orissa were known as the Naib Nazims. An extensive landed aristocracy was established by the Mughals in Bengal. The aristocracy was responsible for taxation and revenue collection. Land holders were bestowed with the title of Jagirdar. The Qadi title was reserved for the chief judge. Mansabdars were leaders of the Mughal Army, while faujdars were generals. The Mughals were credited for secular pluralism during the reign of Akbar, who promoted the religious doctrine of Din-i Ilahi. Later rulers promoted more conservative Islam.

In 1717, the Mughal government replaced Viceroy Azim-us-Shan due to conflicts with his influential deputy viceroy and prime minister Murshid Quli Khan.^[71] Growing regional autonomy caused the Mughal Court to establish a hereditary principality in Bengal, with Khan being recognised in the official title of Nazim. He founded the Nasiri dynasty. In 1740, following the Battle of Giria, Alivardi Khan staged a coup and founded the short-lived Afsar dynasty. For all practical purposes, the Nazims acted as independent princes. European colonial powers referred to them as Nawabs or Nababs.^[72]

Personal name[73]	Reign
Munim Khan Khan-i-Khanan منعم خان، خان خاناں	25 September 1574 – 23 October 1575
Hussain Quli Beg Khan Jahan I حسین قلی بیگ، خان جہاں اول	15 November 1575 – 19 December 1578
Muzaffar Khan Turbati مظفر خان تربتی	1579–1580
Mirza Aziz Koka Azam Khan I میرزا عزیز کوکہ،خان اعظم	1582–1583
Shahbaz Khan Kamboh Lahori Mir Jumla I شھباز خان کمبوہ	1583–1585
Sadiq Khan صادق خان	1585–1586
Wazir Khan Tajik وزیر خان	1586–1587
Sa'id Khan سعید خان	1587–1594
Raja Man Singh I راجہ مان سنگھ	4 June 1594 – 2 September 1606
Qutb-ud-din Khan Koka قطب الدین خان کوکہ	2 September 1606 – 20 May 1607
Jahangir Quli Beg جہانگیر قلی بیگ	1607–1608
Sheikh Ala-ud-din Chisti Islam Khan I اسلام خان چشتی	June 1608 – 1613
Qasim Khan Chishti Muhtashim Khan قاسم خان چشتی	1613–1617
Ibrahim Khan Fateh Jang Ibrahim Khan I ابراہیم خان فتح جنگ	1617–1622
Mahabat Khan محابت خان	1622–1626
Mirza Amanullah Khan Jahan II میرزا أمان اللہ ، خان زماں ثانی	1626
Mukarram Khan Chishti مکرم خان	1626–1627
Fidai Khan I فدای خان	1627–1628
Qasim Khan Juvayni Qasim Manija قاسم خان جوینی، قاسم مانیجہ	1628–1632
Mir Muhammad Baqir Azam Khan II میر محمد باقر، اعظم خان	1632–1635
Mir Abdus Salam Islam Khan II اسلام خان مشھدی	1635–1639
Sultan Shah Shuja شاہ شجاع	1639–1660
Mir Jumla II میر جملہ	May 1660 – 30 March 1663
Mirza Abu Talib Shaista Khan I میرزا ابو طالب، شایستہ خان	March 1664 – 1676
Fidai Khan Koka, Fidai Khan II اعظم خان کوکہ، فدای خان ثانی	1676–1677
Sultan Muhammad Azam Shah Alijah محمد اعظم شاہ عالی جاہ	1678–1679
Mirza Abu Talib Shaista Khan I میرزا ابو طالب، شایستہ خان	1680–1688
Ibrahim Khan ibn Ali Mardan Khan Ibrahim Khan II ابراہیم خان ابن علی مردان خان	1688–1697
Sultan Azim-us-Shan عظیم الشان	1697–1712
Others were appointed but did not show up from 1712 to 1717 and managed by Deputy Subahdar Murshid Quli Khan.
Murshid Quli Khan مرشد قلی خان	1717–1727

Portrait	Regnal name	Personal name	Birth	Reign	Death
Nasiri dynasty
	Jaafar Khan Bahadur Nasiri	Murshid Quli Khan	1665	1717– 1727	30 June 1727
	Ala-ud-Din Haidar Jang	Sarfaraz Khan Bahadur Dakhni	?	1727–1727	29 April 1740
	Shuja ud-Daula	Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan or Mirza Deccani	Around 1670 (date not available)	July 1727 – 26 August 1739	26 August 1739
	Ala-ud-Din Haidar Jang	Sarfaraz Khan Bahadur Dakhni	?	13 March 1739 – April 1740	29 April 1740
Afsar dynasty
	Hashim ud-Daula	Muhammad Alivardi Khan Bahadur	Before 10 May 1671	29 April 1740 – 9 April 1756	9 April 1756
	Siraj ud-Daulah	Muhammad Siraj-ud-Daulah	1733	April 1756 – 2 June 1757	2 July 1757

• Irfan Habib (1999) [First published 1963]. The Agrarian System of Mughal India, 1556–1707 (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-807742-8.