Anusim

Anusim (Hebrew: אֲנוּסִים, pronounced [ʔanuˈsim]; singular male, anús, Hebrew: אָנוּס pronounced [ʔaˈnus]; singular female, anusá, אֲנוּסָה‎ pronounced [ʔanuˈsa], meaning "coerced") is a legal category of Jews in halakha (Jewish law) who were forced to abandon Judaism against their will, typically while forcibly converted to another religion. The term "anusim" is most properly translated as the "coerced [ones]" or the "forced [ones]".

The term anusim is derived from the Talmudic phrase averah b’ones (עבירה באונס‎),^[1] meaning "a forced transgression." The Hebrew ones (pronounced [ˈones]) derives from the triconsonantal root א-נ-ס‎ (Aleph-Nun-Samekh), and originally referred to any case where a person has been forced into any act against his or her will. In Modern Hebrew, the word ones is mainly used to mean rape, thus "anusim" (or female "anusot") nowadays means rape victims, the older meaning used only in the historical context.

The term anús is used in contradistinction to meshumad (מְשֻׁמָּד‎), (literally "self-destroyed") which means a person who has voluntarily abandoned the practice of Jewish law in whole or in part. The forced converts were also known as cristianos nuevos (Spanish) or cristãos-novos (Portuguese); converso or marrano, which had and still has today a pejorative connotation in Spanish.

Besides the term anusim, halakha has various classifications for those Jews who have abandoned, or are no longer committed to, the rabbinic Jewish tradition, whether or not they have converted to another religion.

The two most common descriptions are:

• "Min" (מין‎), or an apostate of Judaism, for a Jew who basically denies the existence of God; and
• "Meshumad" (מְשֻׁמָּד‎), literally "self-destroyed" or a heretic to Judaism, for a Jew who deliberately rebels against the observance of Jewish law.

The main difference between a min, a meshumad, and the anusim is that the act of abandonment of Judaism is voluntary for a min and a meshumad, while for the anusim it is not.

In more recent times, the term "anusim" has also been used to describe "Reverse Marranos", that is, Haredi Jews who are religious on the outside, but are not necessarily practicing in private.^[2]

The term anusim became more frequently used after the forced conversion to Christianity of Ashkenazi Jews in Germany at the end of the 11th century. In his religious legal opinions, Rashi, a French rabbi who lived during this period, commented about the issue of anusim.^[3]

Several centuries later, following the mass forced conversion of Sephardi Jews (those Jews with extended histories in Spain and Portugal, known jointly as Iberia, or Sepharad in Hebrew) of the 15th and 16th centuries, the term "anusim" became widely used by Spanish rabbis and their successors for the following 600 years,^[4] henceforth becoming associated with Sephardic history.

The term may be properly applied to any Jew of any ethnic division. Since that time, it has also been applied to other forced or coerced converted Jews, such as the Mashhadi Jews of Persia (now Iran), who converted to Islam in the public eye, but secretly practised Judaism at home. They lived dual-religious lives, being fully practising Muslims in public life, and fully practising Jews at home.^[5]

In non-rabbinic literature, the more widely known Sephardic anusim are also referred to as:

• "Conversos", meaning "converts [to Christianity]" in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan and Ladino (Judaeo-Spanish).
• "New Christians", or cristianos nuevos in Spanish, and cristãos novos in Portuguese (Catalan: cristians novells), which also encompasses converts from Islam.
• "Crypto-Jews", and
• "Marranos", a term which refers to those conversos which practiced Judaism in secret and, as a result, were targeted by the Spanish inquisition.

The subject of anusim has a special place in rabbinic literature. In normal circumstances, a person who abandons Jewish observance, or part of it, is classified as a meshumad. Such a person is still counted as a Jew for purposes of lineage, but is under a disability to claim any privilege pertaining to Jewish status: for example, he should not be counted in a minyan, that is, a quorum for religious services.

Anusim, by contrast, not only remain Jews by lineage but continue to count as fully qualified Jews for all purposes. Since the act of the original abandonment of the religion was done against the Jew's will, the Jew under force may remain a kosher Jew, as long as the anús keeps practising Jewish law to the best of his/her abilities under the coerced condition. In this sense, "kosher" is the rabbinic legal term applied to a Jew who adheres to rabbinic tradition and is accordingly not subject to any disqualification.

Se‘adyá ben Maimón ibn Danan in the 15th century stated:

Indeed, when it comes to lineage, all the people of Israel are brethren. We are all the sons of one father, the rebels (reshaim) and criminals, the heretics (meshumadim) and forced ones (anusim), and the proselytes (gerim) who are attached to the house of Jacob. All these are Israelites. Even if they left God or denied Him, or violated His Law, the yoke of that Law is still upon their shoulders and will never be removed from them.^[6]

Hakham Joseph Shalom, writing in the 16th century, stated:

This is how it is with these conversos: They derive from the hope of Israel, despite the fact that they have been immersed among the idolaters. Their hope and righteousness endure forever (...) furthermore, when they come to be included among the Jews, they are simply circumcised; they are not immersed like converts who were never part of the Jewish people.^[7]

Ben-Zion Meir Hai Uziel, the Chief Sephardic Rabbi of the State of Israel, stated in the mid-20th century:

And we still have to clarify on the (subject of) Anusím, to whom the government forbids them to perform Halakhicly valid marriages, if it's necessary to say that their wives must have a Get to permit them (to marry another man), for the reason that, by force of the Law (Hazakah/חזקה), a man does not have intercourse for promiscuity (Zenut/זנות) ... (In our very case), we deal with those who converted and kept Torah in secrecy and hide their religion because of the gentile surveillance, we say that they do have intercourse for the sake of marriage.

It follows that Uziel considered anusím as Jews, because only Jews can give or receive a get, a Jewish divorce. Maimonides stated in the Mishneh Torah Sefer Shofetím, Hilekhót Mumarím 3:3:

But their children and grandchildren [of Jewish rebels], who, misguided by their parents ... and trained in their views, are like children taken captive by the gentiles and raised in their laws and customs (וגידלוהו הגויים על דתם), whose status is that of an ’anús [one who abjures Jewish law under duress], who, although he later learns that he is a Jew, meets Jews, observes them practice their laws, is nevertheless to be regarded as an ’anús, since he was reared in the erroneous ways of his parents ... Therefore efforts should be made to bring them back in repentance (לפיכך ראוי להחזירם בתשובה), to draw them near by friendly relations, so that they may return to the strength-giving source, i.e., the Toráh.

There is much controversy regarding the status of conversions today. While the chief rabbis are wary of converting large groups, there are some rabbis such as Haim Amsalem and Chuck Davidson who have done mass conversions of Bnei Anusim (descendants of original Anusim). In the United States Reform rabbi Jacques Cukierkorn is one of the leaders of the outreach movement to the descendants of those Crypto-Jews who wish to renew their ties with the Jewish people.^[8]

• Crisis and Leadership: Epistles of Maimonides. Translated by Halkin, Abraham. notes by Abraham Halkin, discussions by David Hartman. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. 1985. ISBN 0-8276-0238-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) (reissued by the publisher as: Epistles of Maimonides: Crisis and Leadership in 1993).
• Eidelberg, Shlomo, ed. (1996) [1977, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press]. The Jews and the Crusaders: the Hebrew Chronicles of the First and Second Crusades. Translated by Eidelberg, Shlomo. Hoboken, NJ: Ktav Publishing House. ISBN 0-88125-541-6.
• Faur, José (1992). In the Shadow of History: Jews and Conversos at the Dawn of Modernity. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-0801-9.
• Gitlitz, David (2002). Secrecy and Deceit: The Religion of the Crypto-Jews. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
• Halevy, Schulamith Chava (2009). Descendants of the Anusim (Crypto-Jews) in Contemporary Mexico (PDF) (PhD dissertation). Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-10-17.
• Kamen, Henry (1997). The Spanish Inquisition: An Historical Revision. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-81719-1.

• Rabbinic legal discussions about Anusim Archived 2011-05-23 at the Wayback Machine
• 600 years of Rabbinic Responsa regarding Anusim
• Conversos and Maskilim: Similar Issue, Different Approaches
• The Association of Crypto Jews of the Americas Archived 2009-08-03 at the Wayback Machine