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{{Short description|Species of birds mainly in Europe}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Turdus torquatus, Spain 1.jpg
| image_caption = Male ''T. t. torquatus'' in Spain
| image_alt = Black bird with a white crescent on its breast
| image2 =Turdus torquatus, Spain 5.jpg
| image2_caption = {{ubl|Female ''T. t. torquatus'' in Spain|
[[File:Turdus torquatus - Ring Ouzel XC436941.mp3|thumb|center|Bird's call]]}}
| image2_alt = Blackish bird with a pale grey crescent on its breast
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International. |year=2019 |title=''Turdus torquatus'' |amends=2018 |volume=2019 |page=e.T22708768A155629409 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22708768A155629409.en |access-date=2021-06-14}}</ref>
| genus = Turdus
| species = torquatus
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
| range_map =Turdus torquatus distribution map.png
| range_map_caption = Approximate [[Range (biology)|range]] with subspecies
}}

The '''ring ouzel''' ('''''Turdus torquatus''''') is a mainly European member of the [[Thrush (bird)|thrush]] family [[Turdidae]]. It is a medium-sized thrush, {{convert|23|–|24|cm}} in length and weighing {{convert|90|–|138|g}}. The male is predominantly black with a conspicuous white crescent across its breast. Females are browner and duller than males, and young birds may lack the pale chest markings altogether. In all but the northernmost part of its [[Range (biology)|range]], this is a high-altitude species, with three races breeding in mountains from Ireland east to Iran. It breeds in open mountain areas with some trees or shrubs, the latter often including [[calluna|heather]], [[conifer]]s, [[beech]], [[Rhododendron hirsutum|hairy alpenrose]] or [[juniper]]. It is a [[bird migration|migratory bird]], leaving the breeding areas to winter in southern Europe, [[North Africa]] and Turkey, typically in mountains with juniper bushes. The typical [[clutch (eggs)|clutch]] is 3–6 brown-flecked pale blue or greenish-blue eggs. They are incubated almost entirely by the female, with hatching normally occurring after 13&nbsp;days. The [[altricial]], downy chicks [[fledge]] in another 14&nbsp;days and are dependent on their parents for about 12&nbsp;days after fledging.

The ring ouzel is [[omnivorous]], eating [[invertebrate]]s, particularly [[insect]]s and [[earthworm]]s, some small [[vertebrate]]s, and a wide range of fruit. Most animal prey is caught on the ground. During spring migration and the breeding season, invertebrates dominate the adult's diet and are also fed to the chicks. Later in the year, fruit becomes more important, particularly the [[Juniperus communis|common juniper]].

With an extensive range and a large population, the ring ouzel is evaluated as [[least concern]] by the [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN). There are signs of decline in several countries; suspected causes including [[climate change]], human disturbance, hunting and outdoor leisure activities. Loss of junipers may also be a factor in some areas. Natural hazards include predation by mammalian carnivores and birds of prey, and locally there may also be competition from other large thrushes such as the [[common blackbird]], [[mistle thrush]] and [[fieldfare]].

==Etymology==
"Ouzel" is an old name for the [[common blackbird]], the word being cognate with the German {{lang|de|Amsel}}.<ref name=lockwood112 >Lockwood (1984) p. 112.</ref> "Ouzel" may also be applied to a group of superficially similar but more distantly related birds, the [[dippers]], the European representative of which is sometimes known as the [[white-throated dipper|water ouzel]].<ref name=lockwood162 >Lockwood (1984) p. 162.</ref> "Ring Ouzel" was first used by [[John Ray]] in his 1674 ''Collection of English Words not Generally Used'' and became established with his 1678 book ''The Ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton in the County of Warwick''.<ref name=lockwood129 >Lockwood (1984) p. 129.</ref><ref name=ray>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=njdWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT8 |title=Collection of English Words not Generally Used |last1=Ray |first1=John |year=1674 |publisher=John Martyn |location=London |page=86 |access-date=2021-05-04 |archive-date=2021-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814061336/https://books.google.com/books?id=njdWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT8 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=willughby>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/ornithologyFran00Will|title=The Ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton in the County of Warwick | last1=Willughby| first1=Francis|last2=Ray |first2=John |year=1678|publisher=H. Bruges|location = London| pages = [https://archive.org/details/ornithologyFran00Will/page/24/mode/2up?q=ring+ouzel 24], [https://archive.org/details/ornithologyFran00Will/page/194/mode/2up?q=ring+ouzel 194–195] and [https://archive.org/details/ornithologyFran00Will/page/186/mode/2up?q=ring+ouzel 187]|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.63683|doi-access=free}}</ref> As with the [[English language|English]] term, the scientific name also refers to the male's prominent white neck crescent, being derived from the [[Latin]] words {{lang|la|turdus}}, "thrush", and {{lang|la|torquatus}}, "collared".<ref name=job>{{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | url= https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling | publisher= Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 | pages =[https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling/page/n388 388], [https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling/page/n393/mode/2up 393]}}</ref> Old and local names for the ring ouzel include "fell blackbird", "hill blackbird", "moor blackbird", "rock ouzel"<ref name=lockwood61 >Lockwood (1984) p. 61.</ref> and "mountain blackbird".<ref name= zool>{{cite journal | last1 =Harvie-Brown | first1 =John A | last2 =Cordeaux | first2 =John | year =1880 | title =Report on the migration of birds in the autumn of 1879 | journal =The Zoologist | series =Series 3 | volume =4 | issue = | pages =161–204 (165) | language = | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=4d5GAQAAMAAJ&dq=torquatus+%22mountain+blackbird%22&pg=PA165 | jstor = | doi = | access-date =2021-03-13 | archive-date =2021-08-14 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20210814061342/https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Zoologist/4d5GAQAAMAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=torquatus+%22mountain+blackbird%22&pg=PA165&printsec=frontcover | url-status =live }}</ref>

==Taxonomy==
[[File:Turdus torquatus, kos ogrličar.jpg|thumb|left|Male ''T. t. alpestris'' in Serbia|alt=Black bird with a white crescent on its breast]]

The ring ouzel was first described by [[Carl Linnaeus]] under its current scientific name in his 1758 [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'']].<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. | publisher=Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). | year=1758 | volume=1 | quote=T. nigricans, torque albo, rostro fiavescente. | page=170 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727077 | language=la | access-date=2021-04-06 | archive-date=2021-04-10 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410162611/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/727077 | url-status=live |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.542|doi-access=free}}</ref> He noted earlier descriptions by [[Francis Willughby]] and [[Eleazar Albin]], both of whom gave it the name ''Merula torquata''.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Albin | first1=Eleazar | author1-link=Eleazar Albin | last2=Derham | first2=William | author2-link=William Derham | year=1731 | title=A Natural History of Birds : Illustrated with a Hundred and One Copper Plates, Curiously Engraven from the Life | volume=1 | page=37, Plate 37 | place=London | publisher=Printed for the author and sold by William Innys | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/41130335 | access-date=2021-04-06 | archive-date=2021-08-14 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814061343/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/41130335 | url-status=live|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.62897|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{efn|1=Although scientists had been coining names in the previous century, the universally accepted starting point of modern taxonomy for animals is set at 1758, with the publishing of Linnaeus' [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'']].<ref>{{cite book | title=Systema Naturae 250 – The Linnaean Ark |first=Andrew |last=Polaszek |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, Florida |date= 2010 | isbn=9781420095029 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ReWP31_IJSIC&pg=PA34 | page=34}}</ref>}}

There are  about 85 species of medium to large [[thrush (bird)|thrushes]] in the [[genus]] ''Turdus''.<ref name=batista>{{Cite journal | last1=Batista | first1=Romina | last2=Olsson | first2=Urban | last3=Andermann | first3=Tobias | last4=Aleixo | first4=Alexandre | last5=Ribas | first5=Camila Cherem | last6=Antonelli | first6=Alexandre | date=2020 | title=Phylogenomics and biogeography of the world's thrushes (Aves, ''Turdus''): new evidence for a more parsimonious evolutionary history | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume=287 | issue=1919 | pages=20192400 | doi=10.1098/rspb.2019.2400 | pmid=31964299 | pmc=7015335 | doi-access=free | ref=none}}</ref> They are characterised by rounded heads, medium or longish pointed wings, and usually melodious songs.<ref name= Clement36 >Clement (2000) pp. 36–37.</ref>

A 2020 study of the [[genetics]] of ''Turdus''<ref name=batista/> suggested that the genus arose about 9.37&nbsp;million years ago (Mya), expanding out of Africa around 7.2&nbsp;Mya, and diverging into [[Palearctic realm|Palearctic]] and [[Indomalayan realm|Oriental]] groups about 5.7&nbsp;Mya. Further [[Adaptive radiation|radiation]] from Africa to the Americas followed at about 5.3&nbsp;Mya. Details of the study suggest that the ring ouzel, a member of the Eurasian group, may be more closely related to [[Naumann's thrush|Naumann's]] and [[dusky thrush]]es than to the superficially more similar common blackbird.<ref name=batista/>

===Subspecies===
[[File:Turdus torquatus amicorum, Artashavan, Armenia 2.jpg|thumb|Male ''T. t. amicorum'' in [[Artashavan]], Armenia|alt=Black bird with a white crescent on its breast]]

The ring ouzel has three recognised subspecies:<ref name=hbw>{{cite journal | last1=Collar | first1=Nigel | last2=Christie | first2=David A | year=2020 | title= Ring Ouzel (''Turdus torquatus''), version 1.0| editor1-last=del Hoyo | editor1-first=Josep | editor2-last=Elliott | editor2-first=Andrew | editor3-last=Sargatal | editor3-first=Jordi | editor4-last=Christie | editor4-first=David A | editor5-last=de Juana | editor5-first=Eduardo | journal=Birds of the World | location=Ithaca, New York | publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology | doi=10.2173/bow.rinouz1.01 | s2cid=241353806 }}</ref> The northern ring ouzel, ''Turdus torquatus torquatus'' Linnaeus (1758) is the [[Subspecies#Nominotypical subspecies and subspecies autonyms|nominate subspecies]] (the subspecies that repeats the name of the species). It breeds across western and northern Europe from Ireland through [[Scandinavia]] to northwest Russia and winters in southern Europe and northwest Africa.<ref name=hbw/> The Alpine ring ouzel, ''T. t. alpestris'' [[Christian Ludwig Brehm|Brehm, C L]] (1831) breeds in mountain ranges from [[Iberia]] through southern and central Europe to the [[Balkans]], Greece and western Turkey, and also in [[North Africa]]. It winters in North Africa, southern Europe and southern Turkey.<ref name=hbw/><ref name= brehm>{{cite book | last1 = Brehm | first1 = C L | title = Handbuch der Naturgeschichte aller Vogel Deutschlands | publisher = Voigt | series =  | volume =  | edition =  | year = 1831 | location = Ilmenau | pages = 377–378 | language = de | url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/103667#page/409/mode/1up | access-date = 2021-02-24 | archive-date = 2021-06-09 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210609091034/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/103667#page/409/mode/1up | url-status = live |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.169254|doi-access=free}}</ref> The Caucasian ring ouzel, ''T. t. amicorum'' [[Ernst Hartert|Hartert E]] (1923) breeds in central and eastern Turkey east to Turkmenistan, and winters mainly in Iran and parts of Iraq.<ref name=hbw/><ref name=hartert >{{cite book|doi=10.5962/bhl.title.14175|doi-access=free | last1 = Hartert | first1 = Ernst | title = Die Vögel der paläarktischen Fauna. Systematische Übersicht der in Europa, Nord-Asien und der Mittelmeerregion vorkommenden Vögel. | publisher = R Friedlander & Sohn | series =  | volume = 1 | edition =  | year = 1923 | location = Berlin | pages = 663–664 | language = de | url = https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/49566#page/753/mode/1up | access-date = 2021-02-24 | archive-date = 2021-05-20 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210520135658/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/49566#page/753/mode/1up | url-status = live }}</ref> Analysis of [[mitochondrial DNA]] samples from across Europe suggests that this species had a much broader distribution after the [[Last Glacial Period]] that ended about 11,700&nbsp;years ago than it does now.<ref name= bacht>{{cite journal | last1 = Bacht | first1 =Michael| last2 = Rösner | first2 =Sascha| last3 = Müller | first3 =Jörg | last4 = Pfeifer | first4 = Robert | last5 = Stadler | first5 =Jutta | last6 =Brandl | first6 =Roland |last7 = Opgenoorth | first7 = Lars | year =2013| title =Are Ring Ouzel (''Turdus torquatus'') populations of the low mountain ranges remnants of a broader distribution in the past? | journal =Journal of Ornithology | volume = 154 | issue = 1| pages = 231–237| language = | url = | jstor = | doi =10.1007/s10336-012-0889-0| s2cid =254157782| doi-access=}}</ref>

==Description==
The ring ouzel is {{convert|23|–|24|cm}} in length and weighs {{convert|90|–|138|g}}. The [[plumage]] of the male of the nominate race is entirely black except for a conspicuous white crescent on the [[Glossary of bird terms#B|breast]], narrow greyish scaling on the [[Glossary of bird terms#U|upperparts]] and belly and pale edges to the wing feathers. The bill is yellow and the legs are greyish brown. The female resembles the male but is browner and with a duller breast band. Juveniles are like the female, but with a faint or non-existent breast crescent.<ref name= hbw/>

The pale breast marking makes adults of this species unmistakeable; first-winter males also sometimes show a pale crescent. Other young ouzels can be confused with the common blackbird, but always show a paler wing panel than that species.<ref name= Collins >{{cite book | last1 = Svensson | first1 = Lars | last2 = Mullarney | first2 = Killian | last3 = Zetterstrom | first3 = Dan | last4 = Grant | first4 = Peter | title = Birds of Europe | edition=2nd | publisher = Collins | year =2010 | location = London | page = 296| isbn = 978-0-00-726726-2 }}</ref>

Males of ''T. t. alpestris'' have broader white scalloping (repeated small curves) on their underparts than ''T. t. torquatus'', giving a distinctly scaly appearance below. The wing panel is also paler than in the nominate subspecies. Females are much as the nominate race, but with broad white fringes on the chin and throat.<ref name= Clement/> Males of ''T. t. amicorum'' have the largest and whitest breast band of the three subspecies, and the broader white edges and tips of the wing feathers form a distinctive whitish panel in the wing. Females have narrow white fringes on their underparts.<ref name= Clement >Clement (2000) pp. 346–349.</ref> Adult ring ouzels undergo a complete [[moult]] after breeding from late June to early September, before their autumn migration. Juveniles have a partial moult between July and September, replacing their head, body and [[Covert feather|wing covert]] feathers.<ref name= Clement/>

===Voice===
The male ring ouzel sings from a low perch or occasionally in flight. The song consists of a repetition of 2–4 plaintive fluty notes, ''{{Not a typo|tri-ríí}}, {{Not a typo|tri-ríí}}, {{Not a typo|ti-ríí}}'' with pauses between repeats. The call is a loud ''{{Not a typo|tac-tac-tac}}'', becoming harsher if the bird is alarmed. The [[contact call]] is a soft ''{{Not a typo|cherrr}}'' in flight.<ref name= hbw/> Males sing most frequently at dawn and sunset.<ref name= Clement/>

==Distribution and habitat==
The ring ouzel breeds discontinuously across western and northern Europe from north-west [[Ireland]] through Scandinavia to northwest Russia, and in mountains across central southern Europe from the [[Pyrenees]] through the [[Alps]], the Balkans, Greece and Turkey east to [[Turkmenistan]].<ref name=iucn/> In 2014, breeding was recorded on the [[Timan Ridge]], [[Arkhangelsk Oblast]], about {{convert|300|km|mi}} further east than previously known breeding sites in north Russia.<ref name=hbw/>

The species is [[bird migration|migratory]], birds leaving the breeding areas in September and October. Birds of the nominate subspecies winter in southern Spain and northwest Africa. Central European populations of ''T. t. alpestris'' move to higher elevations initially before moving south or southwest through the Swiss Alps; some two weeks later migrants of the nominate form pass through the same area to winter in the south of the breeding range or around the Mediterranean. Eastern ''alpestris'' ouzels migrate through the Balkans and Turkey. ''T. t. amoricus'' moves south to [[Egypt]] and neighbouring areas. The return migration is mainly in March and April, the males arriving some days before the females. Northern breeders arrive later, and in the mountains, some birds may ascend in stages as the snow melts.<ref name=hbw/> Many birds stop off at traditional well-grazed grassland locations in both spring and autumn.<ref name=BB86>{{cite journal|last1=Leverton|first1=Roy|title=Migrant Ring Ouzels at a stopover site on the South Downs|journal=British Birds|volume=86|issue=6|url=https://britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V86/V86_N06/V86_N06_P253_266_A076.pdf|year=1993|pages=253–266|access-date=2021-04-16|archive-date=2021-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416132338/https://britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V86/V86_N06/V86_N06_P253_266_A076.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The ring ouzel is extinct in [[Latvia]] and occurs only on migration in [[Denmark]]. It is a passage migrant in [[Syria]] and a vagrant to [[Iceland]], [[Jordan]], the [[Arabian Peninsula]], [[Sudan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Mauritania]], [[Svalbard]] and [[Jan Mayen]].<ref name=iucn/> In the Atlantic, it is a regular winter visitor to the [[Canary Islands]] but a rarity in the [[Azores]] and [[Madeira]].<ref name=hbw/>

In middle latitudes, the ring ouzel is a bird of continental mountains, but in the north of its range, it is found in coastal uplands. It can cope with wind and rain but avoids ice and snow. Nominate ''T. t. torquatus'' is usually found on open moorland with a few stunted trees above {{convert|250|m}}, and reaching {{convert|1200|m}} in [[Scotland]] and northern Europe.<ref name=BWP>{{cite book | editor1-last = Snow | editor1-first = David |editor2-last= Perrins|editor2-first=Christopher M| title = The Birds of the Western Palearctic concise edition |volume=2 Passerines | publisher = Oxford University Press |year = 1998| location =Oxford | isbn = 0-19-854099-X |pages=1212–1215}}</ref> In Switzerland, ring ouzels breed on rugged upland slopes with [[calluna|heather]], [[conifer]]s, [[beech]] or  [[Rhododendron hirsutum|hairy alpenrose]] at {{convert|1100|–|1300|m}},<ref name=hbw/><ref name=BWP/> although in Turkey birds are found from sea level to {{convert|1500|m}}.<ref name=Clement/> In Armenia and the Caucasus, it occupies similar steep habitat with conifer stands, rhododendron thickets, and [[juniper]] scrub and shrub, from sea level to {{convert|2000|–|3000|m}}.<ref name=hbw/>

In northwest Africa ring ouzels winter in juniper forest at {{convert|1800|–|2200|m}}, often near rivers or ponds. On migration, ouzels may occur on coastal grassland and steep hillsides with short, unsown wild grass and sparse scrub.<ref name=hbw/>

==Behaviour==
The ring ouzel is [[territory (animal)|territorial]] and normally seen alone or in pairs, although loose flocks may form on migration. When not breeding, several birds may be loosely associated in good feeding areas, such as a fruiting tree, often with other thrushes such as song thrushes or [[redwing]]s. The ouzel's flight is direct, and birds often perch on rocks or heather clumps.<ref name= Clement/>

===Breeding===
[[File:Turdus torquatus MWNH 2255.JPG|thumb|Eggs in collection of [[Museum Wiesbaden]]|alt=Three greenish eggs]]

Ring ouzels nest from mid-April to mid-July in the Alps and the [[British Isles]], and from May to August in Scandinavia. Territories may be strung out along streams, {{convert|160|–|200|m}} apart and the ranges may overlap, but this species does not form breeding colonies. The nest, built by the female, is a cup of leaves, dry grass and other plant material consolidated with mud. In the west of the range nests are almost always built on the ground, but ''T. t. alpestris'' may also nest in a small tree or scrub at an average height of {{convert|3.5| m}}.<ref name=hbw/><ref name= Clement/>

The [[clutch (eggs)|clutch]] is 3–6 pale blue or greenish-blue eggs flecked with reddish-brown.<ref name=hbw/> The eggs are {{convert|30|x|22|mm|abbr=on}} in size and weigh {{convert|7.4|g}} of which 6% is shell. Incubation is almost always by the female, hatching typically occurring after 13&nbsp;days. The [[altricial]], downy chicks [[fledge]] in another 14&nbsp;days.<ref name = BTO>{{cite web |title= Ring Ouzel ''Turdus torquatus '' [Linnaeus, 1758] |work= BTOWeb BirdFacts |url= https://app.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob11860.htm |publisher= British Trust for Ornithology |access-date= 2021-03-07 |archive-date= 2019-05-13 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190513103058/https://app.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob11860.htm |url-status= live }}</ref> The young are dependent on their parents for about 12 days after fledging.<ref name=hbw/>

Adults breed after their first year and their average lifespan is two years, although nine years has been recorded.<ref name = BTO/> There may be two broods, especially in the south of the range,<ref name= Clement/> although triple-brooding is rare. This species is [[philopatric]], returning to the same area to breed each year.<ref name=sim3 >{{cite journal | last1 = Sim | first1 =Innes M W| last2 = Rebecca | first2 =Graham W| last3 = Wilkinson | first3 = Nicholas I|year =2012| title = Frequency of multiple brooding in Ring Ouzels, including first documented cases of triple brooding | journal = Bird Study | volume = 59| issue = 3| pages = 358–362 | url = | jstor = | doi =10.1080/00063657.2012.707637 | s2cid =83528323| doi-access = free}}</ref> Around 36% of juveniles survive their first year, while the annual survival rate for adults is 47% for males and 37% for females. The main causes of death in northwest Europe are predation (9%), accidental human-related incidents (10%), and hunting, mainly in France (77%).<ref name=hbw/>

===Diet===
[[File:Juniperus communis at Valjala on 2005-08-11.jpg|upright=0.6|[[Juniperus communis|Juniper]] berries are a favoured winter food item.|thumb|alt=A large bird of prey in flight<!-- alt=purple berries on a bush -->]]

The ring ouzel is [[omnivorous]], eating a wide range of [[insect]]s, [[earthworm]]s, small [[amphibian]]s and [[reptile]]s and fruit. Most animal prey is caught on the ground.<ref name= Clement/>

During spring migration and the breeding season, [[invertebrate]]s dominate the diet, and include earthworms, [[beetle]]s [[fly|flies]], [[ant]]s, [[spider]]s and [[snail]]s. Later in the year, fruit becomes more important, including [[bramble]], [[Fragaria|strawberry]], [[cherry]], [[Crataegus|hawthorn]], [[rowan]] and juniper.<ref name=hbw/> Where it is available [[Juniperus communis|common juniper]] makes up more than 90% of the ring ouzel's winter diet, with [[arthropod]]s constituting most of the rest. As a result, the ring ouzel is an important vector for dispersing the juniper's seeds,<ref name= zamora>{{cite journal | last1 = Zamora | first1 =Regino| year =1990| title =The fruit diet of ring-ouzels (''Turdus torquatus'') wintering in the Sierra Nevada (South-East Spain) | journal = Alauda | volume =58 | issue =1 | pages = 67–70  | jstor = | doi =}}</ref> and is key to the dispersal of the [[endemism|endemic]] [[Juniperus cedrus|Canary Islands juniper]].<ref name= rumeu>{{cite journal | last1 = Rumeu | first1 =Beatriz| last2 =Padilla | first2 =David P |year =2010| title  =The key role of a Ring Ouzel ''Turdus torquatus'' wintering population in seed dispersal of the endangered endemic ''Juniperus cedrus'' in an insular environment | journal =Acta Ornithologica  | volume =44 | issue = 2| pages = 199–204| url = | jstor = | doi =10.3161/000164509X482786| s2cid =84868622}}</ref>

The young are mainly fed invertebrates, [[caterpillar]]s and earthworms being major items where available. Although birds migrating in autumn use similar habitat to that used in spring, seasonal berries make up most of their diet, particularly [[Sambucus nigra|elderberries]], haws and, where available, juniper berries.<ref name=hbw/>

==Predators and parasites==
[[File:Common-Buzzard.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|The [[common buzzard]] is a predator of ring ouzels.]]

Predators of the ring ouzel include the [[tawny owl]], [[long-eared owl]],<ref name= owls>{{cite journal | last1 = Yalden | first1 =D W| year =1985| title = Dietary separation of owls in the Peak District | journal = Bird Study | volume =32 | issue =2 | pages = 122–131| language = | url = | jstor = | doi =10.1080/00063658509476867| doi-access = }}</ref> [[common buzzard]], [[common kestrel]] and [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]], [[least weasel]] and [[stoat]]. Most deaths are of young juveniles, and birds hatched early in the season are more likely to survive than later broods.<ref name= innes>{{cite journal | last1 = Sim | first1 = Innes M W | last2 = Ludwig | first2 = Sonja C | last3 = Grant | first3 = Murray C | last4 = Loughrey | first4 = Joanna L | last5 = Rebecca | first5 = Graham W | last6 = Reid | first6 = Jane M | year = 2013 | title = Postfledging survival, movements, and dispersal of Ring Ouzels (''Turdus torquatus'') | journal = The Auk | volume = 130 | issue = 1 | pages = 69–77 | url = https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2010.01798.x | jstor =  | doi = 10.1525/auk.2012.12008 | hdl = 2164/3367 | s2cid = 54722381 | hdl-access = free | access-date = 2021-04-24 | archive-date = 2021-04-24 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210424130506/https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2010.01798.x | url-status = live }}</ref> A Scottish study showed that [[bird of prey|raptors]] were responsible for 59% of deaths and mammals for 27%. In Romania, eggs were taken by [[red squirrel]]s and [[spotted nutcracker]]s.<ref name=hbw/> As with other ''Turdus'' thrushes, the ring ouzel is rarely a host of the [[common cuckoo]], a [[brood parasite]]. If the thrush's nest cup is too deep for the cuckoo to evict the host's chicks, the young cuckoo cannot successfully compete for food with the fast-growing host species' chicks, and if the cuckoo does manage to expel its nest-mates, the parents are reluctant to feed it; either way, the young cuckoo will starve.<ref name=grim >{{cite journal | last1 =Grim | first1 =Tomáš| last2 = Samaš | first2 =Peter| last3 = Moskát | first3 = Csaba| last4 =Kleven | first4 =Oddmund| last5=Honza | first5=Marcel| last6 = Moksnes5| first6 =Arne | last7 =Røskaft | first7=Eivin| last8 = Stokke | first8 =Bård G|year =2011| title =Constraints on host choice: why do parasitic birds rarely exploit some common potential hosts? | journal =Journal of Animal Ecology | volume =80 | issue = 3| pages = 508–518| language = | url = | jstor = | doi =10.1111/j.1365-2656.2010.01798.x | pmid =21244420| doi-access=free }}</ref>

A study in the [[Carpathian Mountains]] found that a significant proportion of ring ouzels carried [[Trombiculidae|trombiculid mites]], commonly known as chiggers. These [[mite]]s commonly infect ground-feeding birds, and heavy infestations can cause birds to lose condition and stop feeding.<ref name= chigger>{{cite journal | last1 = Literák | first1 = I | last2 = Honza | first2 = M | last3 = Pinowska | first3 = B | last4 = Haman | first4 = A | year = 2001 | title = Larvae of trombiculid mites (Acarina: Trombiculidae) in wild birds in Slovak and Polish Carpathians | journal = Acta Veterinaria Brno | volume = 70 | issue = 4 | pages = 479–483 | url = https://actavet.vfu.cz/media/pdf/avb_2001070040479.pdf | jstor =  | doi = 10.2754/avb200170040479 | doi-access = free | access-date = 2021-03-09 | archive-date = 2018-07-21 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180721030420/https://actavet.vfu.cz/media/pdf/avb_2001070040479.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref> The [[Ixodes|hard-bodied tick]] ''Ixodes festai'' commonly parasitises thrushes, including the ring ouzel.<ref name= ixodes>{{cite journal | last1 = Contini | first1 =C| last2 = Palmas| first2 =C| last3 = Seu | first3 = V| last4 = Stancampiano | first4 =L| last5 = Usai | first5 =F|year =2011| title =Redescription of the male of ''Ixodes festai'' Rondelli, 1926 (Ixodida: Ixodidae) on specimens from Sardinia (Italy) | journal =Parasite | volume =18 | issue =3 | pages = 235–240| language = | url = | jstor = | doi =10.1051/parasite/2011183235| pmid =21894264| pmc =3671470| doi-access = free}}</ref> There is a record of this species carrying a ''[[Haemoproteus]] '' blood parasite.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 =Dimitrov | first1 =Dimitar |last2 = Zehtindjiev | first2 =Pavel| last3 =Bensch | first3 = Staffan| year =2010| title =Genetic diversity of avian blood parasites in SE Europe:Cytochrome ''b'' lineages of the genera ''Plasmodium'' and ''Haemoproteus'' (Haemosporida) from Bulgaria | journal =Acta Parasitologica | volume =55 | issue =3 | pages = 201–209| language = | url = | jstor = | doi =10.2478/s11686-010-0029-z | doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Status and conservation==
The ring ouzel has an extensive range, estimated at {{convert|9.17|sqkm|sqmi|disp=preunit| million }}, and a large population, estimated at 600,000–2&nbsp;million individuals in Europe (which comprises 95% of the breeding range). The species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criteria of the IUCN Red List (i.e., declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations), and is therefore evaluated as [[least concern]]. The breeding population in Europe was estimated to be 299,000–598,000 pairs in 2019.<ref name=iucn/>

There are signs of decline in several countries. Its  decline
in Ireland in recent  years has been striking,  with regular breeding  now confined to two counties.  Suspected causes include [[climate change]], human disturbance, hunting and outdoor leisure activities. Loss of junipers may be a factor in southern Spain and north-west Africa, as may upland forestation in the UK. There may also be competition from larger thrushes like the common blackbird, mistle thrush and fieldfare.<ref name=iucn/> A Scottish study suggested that sites at higher altitudes and with a good cover of [[Calluna vulgaris|heather]] were less likely to have been deserted by breeding ring ouzels than lower or more open locations.<ref name= Sim>{{cite journal | last1 = Sim | first1 =Innes M W| last2 = Burfield | first2 = Ian J| last3 = Grant | first3 = Murray C | last4 = Pearce-Higgins| first4 = James W|last5 = Brooke | first5 = M de L |year =2007| title =The role of habitat composition in determining breeding site occupancy in a declining Ring Ouzel ''Turdus torquatus'' population | journal =Ibis | volume = 149| issue = 2| pages = 374–385 | jstor = | doi =10.1111/j.1474-919X.2007.00655.x }}</ref>

In the Alps, the density of breeding pairs can reach {{convert|60|–|80|/km2|/sqmi}} but is generally much lower with {{convert|37|/km2|/sqmi}} in [[Haute-Savoie]], {{convert|22|/km2|/sqmi}} in the [[Jura Mountains]], and {{convert|8|/km2|/sqmi}} in more open habitats in Britain.<ref name=hbw/>

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

==Cited texts==
* {{cite book |title=Thrushes |series=Helm Identification Guides |last1= Clement |first1= Peter |last2= Hathway |first2=Ren |last3= Wilczur| first3=Jan |publisher =Christopher Helm|location=London|pages=|year=2000 |isbn= 0-7136-3940-7}}
* {{cite book | last = Lockwood| first =W B | title = Oxford Book of British Bird Names| year = 1984| publisher = Oxford University Press|location= Oxford| isbn = 0-19-214155-4}}

==External links==
* {{Commons-inline|Turdus torquatus|''Turdus torquatus''}}
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Turdus torquatus|''Turdus torquatus''}}
* [https://www.xeno-canto.org/species/Turdus-torquatus Audio recording of ring ouzel] at [[Xeno-canto]]

{{Taxonbar |from=Q26641}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Birds described in 1758]]
[[Category:Birds of Europe]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Turdus]]

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