North American English

North American English
North American English
North American English
English
Native to	United States, Canada
Region	Northern America
Ethnicity	Northern Americans (Americans, Canadians)
Language family	Indo-European Germanic West Germanic North Sea Germanic Anglo-Frisian Anglic English North American English; ; ; ; ; ; ;
Early forms	Proto-Indo-European Proto-Germanic Proto-West Germanic Proto-English Old English Middle English Early Modern English Modern English ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
Dialects	American English, Canadian English and their subdivisions
Writing system	Latin (English alphabet); Unified English Braille
Language codes
ISO 639-3	–
Glottolog	nort3314
IETF	en-021

North American English is the most generalized^{[clarification needed]} variety of the English language as spoken in the United States and Canada. Because of their related histories and cultures,^[2] plus the similarities between the pronunciations (accents), vocabulary, and grammar of American English and Canadian English, the two spoken varieties are often grouped together under a single category.^[3]^[4] Canadians are generally tolerant of both British and American spellings, with British spellings of certain words (e.g., colour) preferred in more formal settings and in Canadian print media; for some other words the American spelling prevails over the British (e.g., tire rather than tyre).^[5]

Dialects of American English spoken by United Empire Loyalists who fled the American Revolution (1775–1783) have had a large influence on Canadian English from its early roots.^[6] Some terms in North American English are used almost exclusively in Canada and the United States (for example, the terms diaper and gasoline are widely used instead of nappy and petrol). Although many English speakers from outside North America regard those terms as distinct Americanisms, they are just as common in Canada, mainly due to the effects of heavy cross-border trade and cultural penetration by the American mass media.^[7] ^{[better source needed]} The list of divergent words becomes longer if considering regional Canadian dialects, especially as spoken in the Atlantic provinces and parts of Vancouver Island where significant pockets of British culture still remain.^{[further explanation needed]}

There are a considerable number of different accents within the regions of both the United States and Canada. In North America, different English dialects of immigrants from England, Scotland, Ireland, and other regions of the British Isles mixed together in the 17th and 18th centuries. These were developed, built upon, and blended together as new waves of immigration, and migration across the North American continent, developed new dialects in new areas, and as these ways of speaking merged with and assimilated to the greater American dialect mixture that solidified by the mid-18th century.^[8]

Dialects

ENE

WNE

NYC

PHILA.

INLAND NORTH

WPA

NORTH CENTRAL

WEST

MIDLAND

SOUTH

Chesapeake &
Outer Banks

Maine

New
Orleans

Baltimore

The American English major regional dialects (in all caps), plus smaller and more local dialects, as demarcated primarily by William Labov et al.'s The Atlas of North American English,^[9] as well as the related Telsur Project's regional maps. Many regions also contain speakers of a "General American" accent that resists the marked features of their region. This map does not account for speakers of ethnic or racial dialects.

STANDARD CANADIAN

ATLANTIC CANADIAN

Lunenburg

Newfoundland

The Canadian English's major regional dialects (in all caps), plus smaller and more local dialects, as demarcated primarily by William Labov et al.'s The Atlas of North American English,^[9] as well as the related Telsur Project's regional maps. Many regions also contain speakers of a "General American" accent that resists the marked features of their region. This map does not account for speakers of ethnic or racial dialects.

American English

General American

Ethnic American English

Regional American English

Canadian English

Table of accents

Below, several major North American English accents are defined by particular characteristics:

Accent name	Most populous city	Strong /aʊ/ fronting	Strong /oʊ/ fronting	Strong /u/ fronting	Strong /ɑr/ fronting	Cot–caught merger	Pin–pen merger	/æ/ raising system	Other defining criteria^[10]
African-American		Mixed	No	No	No	Mixed	Yes^[11]	pre-nasal	African-American Vowel Shift / Variable non-rhoticity / L-vocalization / Th-fronting
Atlantic Canadian	Halifax	Mixed	No	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	various	Canadian raising
General American		No	No	No	No	Mixed	No	pre-nasal
Inland Northern U.S.	Chicago	No	No	No	Yes	No	No	general	Northern Cities Vowel Shift
Midland U.S.	Indianapolis	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Mixed	Mixed	pre-nasal
New Orleans	New Orleans	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	split	Mid-Atlantic Back Vowel Shift / Non-rhoticity / Th-stopping / Southern Vowel Shift / Variable horse-hoarse distinction / Canadian Raising / L-vocalization
New York City	New York City	Yes	No	No^[12]	No	No	No	split	Mid-Atlantic Back Vowel Shift / Variable non-rhoticity / L-vocalization / Th-stopping / Variable Father-bother distinction / Northeastern /-ɒr-/
North-Central (Upper Midwestern) U.S.	Minneapolis	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	pre-nasal & pre-velar
Northeastern New England	Boston	No	No	No	Yes	Yes	No	pre-nasal	Variable non-rhoticity / Canadian raising / Father-bother distinction / Northeastern /-ɒr-/
Philadelphia	Philadelphia	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	split	Mid-Atlantic Back Vowel Shift / L-vocalization / Northeastern /-ɒr-/ / Merry–Murray merger
Rhode Island	Providence	No	No	No	No	No	No	pre-nasal	Mid-Atlantic Back Vowel Shift / Variable non-rhoticity / Canadian raising / Northeastern /-ɒr-/
Southern U.S.	San Antonio	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Mixed	Yes	pre-nasal	Southern drawl / Southern Vowel Shift / Variable wine-whine distinction
Standard Canadian	Toronto	No	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	pre-nasal & pre-velar	Canadian raising / Low Back Merger Shift
Western U.S.	Los Angeles	No	Mixed	Yes	No	Yes	No	pre-nasal	Low Back Merger Shift
Western Pennsylvania	Pittsburgh	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	Mixed	pre-nasal	/aʊ/ glide weakening / L-vocalization
Accent name	Most populous city	Strong /aʊ/ fronting	Strong /oʊ/ fronting	Strong /u/ fronting	Strong /ɑr/ fronting	Cot–caught merger	Pin–pen merger	/æ/ raising system	Other defining criteria^[10]

Phonology

A majority of North American English (for example, in contrast to British English) includes phonological features that concern consonants, such as rhoticity (full pronunciation of all /r/ sounds), conditioned T-glottalization (with satin pronounced [ˈsæʔn̩], not [ˈsætn̩]), T- and D-flapping (with metal and medal pronounced the same, as [ˈmɛɾɫ̩]), L-velarization (with filling pronounced [ˈfɪɫɪŋ], not [ˈfɪlɪŋ]), as well as features that concern vowel sounds, such as various vowel mergers before /r/ (so that, Mary, marry, and merry are all commonly pronounced the same), raising of pre-voiceless /aɪ/ (with price and bright using a higher vowel sound than prize and bride), the weak vowel merger (with affected and effected often pronounced the same), at least one of the LOT vowel mergers (the LOT–PALM merger is completed among virtually all Americans and the LOT–THOUGHT merger among nearly half, while both are completed among virtually all Canadians), and yod-dropping (with tuesday pronounced /ˈtuzdeɪ/, not /ˈtjuzdeɪ/). The last item is more advanced in American English than Canadian English.

References

^ "Unified English Braille (UEB)". Braille Authority of North America (BANA). 2 November 2016. Archived from the original on 23 November 2016. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
^ Chambers, J.K. (1998). "Canadian English: 250 Years in the Making". The Canadian Oxford Dictionary (2nd ed.). p. xi.
^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
^ Trudgill, Peter & Jean Hannah. (2002). International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English, 4th. London: Arnold. ISBN 0-340-80834-9.
^ Patti Tasko. (2004). The Canadian Press Stylebook: A Guide for Writers and Editors, 13th. Toronto: The Canadian Press. ISBN 0-920009-32-8, p. 308.
^ M.H. Scargill. (1957). "Sources of Canadian English", The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, 56.4, pp. 610–614.
^ John Woitkowitz (2012). "Arctic Sovereignty and the Cold War: Asymmetry, Interdependence, and Ambiguity". Archived from the original on 2011-07-02. Retrieved 2012-03-13.
^ Longmore, Paul K. (2007). "'Good English without Idiom or Tone': The Colonial Origins of American Speech". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. MIT. 37 (4): 513–542.
^ ^a ^b Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:148)
^ ^a ^b Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:146)
^ Labov (1972), p. 19.
^ Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:101, 103)

Bibliography

Chambers, J.K. (1998). "Canadian English: 250 Years in the Making," in The Canadian Oxford Dictionary, 2nd ed., p. xi.
Clark, Joe (2008). Organizing Our Marvellous Neighbours: How to Feel Good About Canadian English (e-book). ISBN 978-0-9809525-0-6.
Labov, William (1972), Language in the Inner City: Studies in Black English Vernacular, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press
Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006), The Atlas of North American English, Berlin: Mouton-de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-016746-8

[braille-1] "Unified English Braille (UEB)". Braille Authority of North America (BANA). 2 November 2016. Archived from the original on 23 November 2016. Retrieved 2 January 2017.

[Chambers-2] Chambers, J.K. (1998). "Canadian English: 250 Years in the Making". The Canadian Oxford Dictionary (2nd ed.). p. xi.

[Labov_et_al._2006-3] Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)

[4] Trudgill, Peter & Jean Hannah. (2002). International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English, 4th. London: Arnold. ISBN 0-340-80834-9.

[5] Patti Tasko. (2004). The Canadian Press Stylebook: A Guide for Writers and Editors, 13th. Toronto: The Canadian Press. ISBN 0-920009-32-8, p. 308.

[6] M.H. Scargill. (1957). "Sources of Canadian English", The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, 56.4, pp. 610–614.

[7] John Woitkowitz (2012). "Arctic Sovereignty and the Cold War: Asymmetry, Interdependence, and Ambiguity". Archived from the original on 2011-07-02. Retrieved 2012-03-13.

[8] Longmore, Paul K. (2007). "'Good English without Idiom or Tone': The Colonial Origins of American Speech". The Journal of Interdisciplinary History. MIT. 37 (4): 513–542.

[auto1-9] Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:148)

[auto-10] Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:146)

[FOOTNOTELabov197219-11] Labov (1972), p. 19.

[12] Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:101, 103)

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