Offshore wind power in the United States

Offshore wind power is in the early stages of development in the United States. In 2022, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory estimated that the country has a "technical" resource potential of 1,476 GW (fixed-bottom) and 2,773 GW (floating) offshore wind power.^[1] Offshore wind projects are under development in wind-rich areas of the East Coast, Great Lakes, and Pacific coast. The first offshore wind farm, Block Island Wind Farm, began operation in 2016.^[2] The first commercial-scale (greater than 100 MW) offshore plant, the South Fork Wind Farm off Rhode Island, was fully commissioned on March 14, 2024. As of May 31, 2024, total offshore wind power was 174 MW.^[3]

In 2021 the Biden administration announced a target of 30 GW of offshore wind by 2030.^[4] As of 2022, the US had 0.042 GW of offshore wind power,^[5] in addition to which Vineyard Wind started coming online in stages on January 2, 2024.^[6]

There is more than 16 GW of capacity planned for the Atlantic Coast. The map at right shows leases executed by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for the outer continental shelf off the Massachusetts and Rhode Island coasts, the first offshore wind energy area to be opened for auction, in 2014 (lease assignments as of 2022).^[7]

Because of its shallow waters and average offshore wind speeds in excess of 9 m/s, the coast off Massachusetts has the greatest potential offshore wind production in the US, at more than 1 million GWh per year, followed by that of the Gulf Coast states.^[8] In 2016, an update to Massachusetts energy law committed the state to purchasing 1,600 MW of offshore wind by 2027,^[9] of which the first half was later awarded to Vineyard Wind (see project list below).^[10] The shallow waters off the New England coast and proximity to load centers such as Boston, Providence, and Long Island make this area the most economical for both construction of wind farms and delivery of power to favorable nodes on the electric grid.

The state of New Jersey is aiming for 7,500 MW of offshore wind power capacity by 2035^[11] and 11,000 MW by 2040.^[12] New York has set of target of 2,400 megawatts (MW) of offshore wind by 2030. In February 2022, an auction for 6 lease areas in the New York Bight ended at $4.37 billion, with one area going for over one billion dollars. The combined areas could yield more than 5.6 gigawatts for an annual energy production of 19.6 TWh.^[13][14][15]

North Carolina also has high potential for offshore wind production, with above 600 thousand GWh per year, the vast majority of which comes from wind speeds greater than 8 m/s.^[8] Furthermore, this industry is expected to add $140 billion and tens of thousands of jobs to North Carolina's economy by 2035.^[16] There are currently two offshore wind farms planned in North Carolina, one in Kitty Hawk, and one in Long Bay.^[17]

Virginia targets 5,400 MW by 2034.^[18]

Wind speeds at various locations off of the East Coast

Great Lakes wind potential for Lake Superior and Lake Michigan

Wind potential for lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario

The Energy Policy Act of 2005 provided for tax credits and other incentives for production of wind power.

The construction of an offshore wind farm involves a three-phase permitting process. First, the proponents must lease the seafloor from its owner – typically this will be Outer Continental Shelf, the federal seafloor which is leased by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) under the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act — but small wind projects can be constructed in state waters as well. The BOEM is the federal agency responsible for determining offshore areas where wind farms may be built in federal waters.^[19] It sells leases to qualified bidders.^[20] These leases may be awarded non-competitively, if only one proponent is interested in developing the area, or by auction. Once awarded, the lease areas can be further assigned and subdivided into separate projects.^{[citation needed]}

Each project proponent, after winning an auction and making its initial lease payment, must file a Site Assessment Plan (SAP), which details the work required to evaluate the environmental conditions in the lease area, including both surface and seafloor conditions. After the SAP is approved, the proponent will install weather buoys and engage survey vessels to develop sufficiently detailed information to complete the design of the wind farm – this will include identifying protected species habitats, unexploded ordnance, shipwrecks, and geological formations that could interfere with either the foundations for wind turbines or the electrical cabling. After completing the survey, the proponent might choose to abandon the lease area if it appears development will be uneconomical, or else continue to final design and permitting, which culminates in the filing of a Construction and Operations Plan (COP).^{[citation needed]}

In addition to the federal permitting process, all wind farms require state permits for their connections to the on-shore electric grid; even if an offshore project is constructed entirely in federal waters its "export cables" will need to transit state waters to reach the shore. Other permits may be required to connect to the grid, such as certificate of public necessity, as well as private consents from an integrated electric utility or a regional transmission organization.^{[citation needed]}

In January 2012, a "Smart from the Start" regulatory approach was introduced, designed to expedite the siting process while incorporating strong environmental protections. Specifically, the Department of Interior approved "wind energy areas" off the coast where projects can move through the regulatory approval process more quickly.^[21] The NOAA Coastal Services Center (CSC) has released a cadastre web tool to illustrate suitability of Eastern seaboard areas.^[22]

In 2014, the Secretary of the Interior Sally Jewell announced 3 new wind energy areas off the coast of North Carolina in accordance with the "Smart from the Start" approach, which totaled to around 307,590 acres of ocean. These three are the Kitty Hawk Wind Energy Areas (122,405 acres), the Wilmington West Wind Energy Areas (51,595 acres), and the Wilmington East Wind Energy Areas (133,590 acres). These locations were chosen through collaboration with the United States Coast Guard to ensure that these locations posed no risk to navigational safety while also protecting sensitive resources and habitats.^[23]

The U.S. offshore wind industry is advancing with the Eco Edison, the first U.S.-built vessel for maintaining offshore wind farms, christened in New Orleans with bipartisan political support. Constructed by Orsted AS and Eversource Energy to service projects in the Northeast, the Eco Edison symbolizes a significant investment in overcoming industry challenges such as inflation and supply chain disruptions.^[24]

Like other major permitting actions, approval of the construction and operations plan is subject to the National Environmental Policy Act and requires preparation of an environmental impact statement (EIS). The BOEM is the lead federal agency in the EIS process, coordinating input from other federal agencies including the Coast Guard, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Maritime Administration, the National Park Service, and the Army Corps of Engineers. In addition to approving each individual project's COP, the BOEM also performs an environmental review prior to opening an area of seafloor to leasing, although this review is not as stringent as a full EIS. The initial review largely serves to identify areas which are not developable and thus should be excluded from leasing.^{[citation needed]}

The full COP review considers impacts to protected marine ecosystems, commercial and recreational fishing, as well as historic and cultural resources. The Coast Guard and Federal Aviation Administration evaluate each wind farm's COP for hazards to navigation and interference with coastal surveillance radars.^[25]

The Merchant Marine Act of 1920 is a United States federal statute that provides for the promotion and maintenance of the American merchant marine.^[26] Section 27 of the Merchant Marine Act is known as the Jones Act and deals with cabotage (coastwise trade) and requires that all goods transported by water between U.S. ports be carried on U.S.-flag ships, constructed in the United States, owned by U.S. citizens and crewed by U.S. citizens and U.S. permanent residents.^[27]

The lack of ships of size needed to transport large equipment needed for wind turbines has slowed the develop of offshore wind farms.^[28][29] To comply with the Jones Act^[30][31] wind turbine installation vessels for $300 million could economically supply a schedule of 4 GW projects over 10 years.^[32] Two or three U.S. shipyards have the capacity to build such vessels. The Charybdis wind turbine installation vessel (WTIV) is under construction at Keppel AmFels Shipyard in Brownsville, Texas, scheduled for 2023.^[33][29]

In December 2020, Congress approved a 30% investment tax credit for U.S. offshore wind farms.^[34][35]

The United States Maritime Administration (MARAD) has made grants for various projects to re-fit or develop new offshore wind ports for the assembly and staging of turbines and other windfarm infrastructure.^[36][37]

Several ports are building or converting facilities to handle the large components^[38][39] and manufacturing facilities such as a blade factories are planned.^[40]

Portsmouth Marine Terminal (VA),^[41] Port of Baltimore (MD),^[42] New Jersey Wind Port,^[43] Port of Paulsboro (NJ), Arthur Kill Terminal (NY),^[44] South Brooklyn Marine Terminal (NY), Port of Albany–Rensselaer (NY), Bridgeport Harbor (CT), State Pier New London (CT)^[45][46] New Bedford Marine Commerce Terminal (MA),^[42] and Salem Harbor (MA)^[44] have all been identified as potential offshore wind ports which would support the manufacture of components and staging areas for off-shore wind farms and docking of heavy-lift ships.

In 2019, the University of Delaware and the Danish Energy and Climate Academy jointly opened the first US skills training program for offshore wind energy professionals.^[47]

As offshore wind energy continues to develop in the United States, developers are becoming increasingly aware of adverse side-effects to the environment as well as the extent to which offshore wind farms reduce carbon emissions. The goal of offshore wind farm developers is primarily to improve the environment by providing a source of renewable energy as an alternative to fossil fuels. By using the high speed winds found offshore, wind turbines generate electricity that can be used to power human activity.

As aforementioned, offshore wind farms have the primary goal of reducing carbon emissions, by providing renewable energy. Evidence of this goal being achieved can already be seen in the United States. Specifically, a study done in Michigan analyzing the effects of offshore wind farms on the Great Lakes has shown improvement to air quality.^[48] Additionally, results from the study indicated a decrease in all common air pollutants as a result of the development of offshore wind energy, as well as a projected 25% decrease in CO2 emissions by 2050.^[49] Additionally, there is evidence that below the surface, offshore wind farms can provide positive environment effects. The covering used to protect the anchoring mechanisms have been shown to create habitats for marine life, in addition to artificial reefs being installed to mitigate damage to marine life resulting from turbine installation.^[50]

One negative effect to note is the carbon emissions resulting from offshore wind farms. Offshore wind farms for the most part do not emit carbon during the energy generation process, yet during their construction and upkeep there is still a carbon footprint which is noted in a life-cycle analysis of the farm.^[51] Continuing with concerns on the environmental impact of offshore wind farms, the construction and maintenance of these farms involve the potential to harm local marine life. Specifically, costal bird species have shown to be harmed by the development of offshore wind farms. Birds have seen increased mortality rates due to collisions with wind turbines, as well as habitat displacement as a result of migration routes being altered as a result of flocks avoiding offshore wind farms.^[52] As for the effects on marine life below the surface, during the drilling processes, vibrations are disturbing to marine life and can cause hearing loss for marine mammals.^[53] Additionally during operation, the electromagnetic fields emanating from the cables exporting electricity cause further acoustic damage to marine life.^[54] Those effects explain the development of floating anchors being used in future offshore wind projects.

North America's first floating wind turbine was the 20 kW Volturn US, which was lowered into the Penobscot River in Maine in 2013.^{[55][56][57][58]} It is a University of Maine project.^[59][60][61] As of 2023, researchers believe that the placement of floating turbines is feasible. Residents of Searsport, Maine, near the potential site, have expressed resistance to placement near their community.^[62]

In May 2014, the United States Department of Energy chose an offshore wind projects to receive funding.^[63] Principle Power was planning a 30-MW WindFloat project in 2013 using 6-MW Siemens turbines in 366 m of water near Coos Bay, Oregon to be operational in 2017,^[64] but the project was cancelled as too costly.^{[65][66][67][68]} Interest has been renewed.^[69]

As of 2020, the United States Department of Energy is funding two demonstration projects:^[70] University of Maine's Aqua Ventus I, which plans to use a semisubmersible floating concrete foundation design and Lake Erie Energy Development Corporation's (LEEDCo's) 20 MW Icebreaker project^[71]

In 2021 the Biden administration approved large areas off the coast California for development of wind farms with floating turbines.^[72][73]

• List of offshore wind farms in the United States
• Wind power in the United States
• List of wind farms
• List of offshore wind farms
• Lists of offshore wind farms by country
• Energy Policy Act of 2005
• Ring crane

• Offshore Renewable Activities – Bureau of Ocean Energy Management
• Offshore Wind Energy – US Department of Energy
• Offshore Wind Power Hub
• Offshore Wind Market Report 2024 Edition – NREL
• Northeast Ocean Data: Offshore Wind Projects
• American Clean Power: Offshore Wind