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History of Latin America

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transl.fr:Histoire de l'Amérique latine

Latin America refers to countries in the Americas where Latin-derived (Romance) languages are spoken; these countries generally lie south of the United States. By extension, some, particularly in the United States, incorrectly apply the term to the whole region south of the United States—including non-Romance-speaking countries such as Suriname, Jamaica, and Guyana.

This region was home to many indigenous peoples and advanced civilizations, including the notable Aztecs, Inca and Maya, before the arrival of Europeans in the late 15th century. Upon their arrival, most of Latin America was colonized, primarily by Spain and Portugal, and, to a lesser extent, by France. In the early 19th century most of the countries in the region attained their independence, although a few small colonies remain.

A 17th-century map of the Americas

Pre-Columbian

Latin American history extends back many centuries, possibly as long as 30,000 years. Precise dating is difficult because there are few text sources. However, highly-developed civilizations flourished at various times and places, such as the Andean Inca and the Central American Maya.

Colonialism

Christopher Columbus "discovered" the Americas in 1492. Subsequently, the major sea powers in Europe sent expeditions to the New World to build market lines and colonies. First, concentrating on the central and southern parts of the Americas, the Spanish and Portuguese built large colonial empires in California, Mexico, and Brazil.

19th century : Post-colonial area

Countries in Latin America by date of independence

Following the model of the U.S. and French revolutions, most of Latin America got its independence by 1825. However, Europe and the United States continued to play major roles, especially in the 19th and 20th centuries.

The independence of Latin American countries finally allowed the dislocation of the structures and old balances, justice and power are monopolized by new "owners" and a new law supporting the property.

Ejidos were put on sale, those who had land became owners by purchasing them. Poor people became submitted to the economy instead of landlords, without confusianist rule of mutual respect between superior and vassal. Profitability attracted many to buy/exploit the lands: the poor do not have any more land of reserve.

In Brazil, in 1910, 85% of lands belonged to 1% of the population.

Thus, gold (in the post-independence societies of Latin America) and fruit (two-thirds of the raw materials produced by the exploitation of the farmers and their plantations) were monopolised by the owners of the land.

These 'Great Owners' totally controlled the local activity and furthermore were the principal employers and the main source of revenue. This led to a society of workers, little politicised and poor who thought these local 'lords' were lawful.

This ecomomy of large estates was adapted to the international market economy, from which it drew its capital, but underwent fluctuations of price. The inequality of the condition of their workers encouraged free competition with the more equalatarian states.

Mongrel reality was completely denied on the level of powerful, except in Mexico. The official culture was exclusively European, catholic, positivist, except in Mexico.

In spite of the proclamation of constitutions inspired by the constitutions of America and France, the lack of involvement of the population dissallowed their implementation to the middle-class who weren't really interested.

After the efforts of Great Bolivia, the Central-American Republic and of the United States of South America the the confusing nature of the borders provoked a number of interstate conflicts, whereas the interior of the countries was often plagued by the fights between federalists and centralists who finally asserted themselves only by action and military repression of the opponents. There remained a difficult to define national space, a nation resembling a state, since these states even were identified only by their European (Spanish or Portuguese) roots and their official population sharing the same language and origins.

The modernization of the networks was mainly justified by the need for control over the whole of its territory, and the capacity to quickly take action at its borders.

This militarisation of the Latin American company caused the recurring emergence of Caudillos, military chiefs whose hold on power depended on his abilities in battle, as a man of action. They entrusted the local authority to these Corronel writes of the local chiefs, 'holding their power of their personal richness and their political fidelity with the chief'

The regimes were either presidential, a little liberal and rather democratic; or Parliamentary that is to say more liberal, less democratic and more oligarchic. In both cases, the opinion of the average-man was devalued. The vote in any event often conditional, favourining a political life is limited to an oligarchy.

The political life, except with the Caudillos, was occupied by the conservatives and the liberals, who in both cases did not have a social policy. And the popular insurrections, when they were expressed, were often influential and repressed: 100,000 died simultaneously during a Colombian revolt around 1890.

Only some States manage to have some semblance of democracy: Uruguay, and partially Argentina, Chile, Costa Rica and Colombia. The others were clearly oligarchist, sometimes with a major support.

Economically, the Latin America was certainly dependent on Europe (mainly England) and the United States; independence left a place for an increased dependence especially in the ninteenth century which saw an increase in the dependence on the investment provided.

Specialist Vocabulary:

Estancias and Haciendas:large-scale farms in which exploitation was rampant.

Fazendas: breeding plantations of coffee/sugar

Ejido: collective ownership, guaranteeing certain rights to each one of the members of the community.

Propriety: the good of only one person.

20th century under USA leadership

See discussion page for how you can help translate this article or section.

against Salvador Allende

in Panama.

(brazil)

Années 1900-1920

Un tournant est signé avec l'intervention américaine à Cuba, en 1898 et l'amendement Platt de 1902, qui autorise les États-Unis à intervenir à Cuba si cela leur semble nécessaire. La vieille doctrine Monroe, qui freine les interventions européennes, est ainsi remplacée par une Doctrine du Big Stick, plus interventionniste pour la défense de ses intérêts.

En Colombie, la concession du Canal de Panama est rachetée en 1903, mais les élites Colombiennes s'opposent à cette mainmise américaine. Une insurrection panaméenne apparait alors, armée de matériel militaire marqué du signe "US", l'indépendance est imposée, et Panama devient un allié des États-Unis.

Au Mexique, Porfirio Díaz ayant promis en 1908 de se retirer du pouvoir. Francisco I. Francisco Madero, un libéral modéré qui veut surtout moderniser calmement le pays pour éviter une révolution socialiste se lance dans une campagne électorale pour défendre les idées libérales aux élections de 1910. Mais Díaz s'organise une septième élection truquée, qui lance la Révolution mexicaine. Des soulèvements s'organisent et des leaders clefs apparaissent : Pancho Villa au nord, Emiliano Zapata dans l'ouest, et Madero plus modéré. Les États-Unis lachent finalement Porfirio Díaz, en 1911, qui doit démissionner le 27 mai, et s'enfuir au profit de Francisco I. Madero, qui devient président le 6 novembre 1911. Madero entreprend un début de démocratisation, mais peu est fait dans le sens des revendications agraires, et Zapata continue la révolution. Le 18 février 1913 Adolfo de la Huerta, un général conservateur organise avec le soutien des États-Unis un coup d'état : Madero est abattu le 22. Les autres chefs révolutionnaires : Pancho Villa, Zapata, et Venustiano Carranza rejette cet usurpateur qui est bientôt lâché par les États-Unis, mécontent de son comportement dictatorial. Zapata et Villa, alliés, prennent Mexico en mars 1914, mais dans cette ville ouvrière ils ne sont pas sur leur terre et préfèrent se retirer vers leurs bastions respectifs. Ceci permet, après la fuite de Huerta en juillet 1914, à Carranza de mener un combat pour la victoire. Il organise alors la répression des armées rebelle de Villa et Zapata, notamment par l'efficace général Álvaro Obregón qui gagne de décisives victoires en 1915, prend Mexico et devient de facto président en octobre 1915. La constitution mexicaine de 1917 est proclamée, mais peu appliquée.

Sous les ordres de Carranza et avec le soutient du materiel militaire américain, Obregón continue sa pression militaire sur les rebelles. Zapata est finalement assassiné le 10 avril 1919. Carranza, le président, est assassiné le 15 mai 1920, laissant la place à Obregón, qui est élu président. Enfin en 1923, c'est Pancho Villa qui est assassiné.

Le Mexique est finalement pacifié par l'accession au pouvoir d'un militaire libéral, mais peu enclin à satisfaire les aspirations agraires de la masse paysanne.

Voir aussi l'article Révolution mexicaine

Années 1930-1960

L'arrivée de Franklin Roosevelt en 1933 permet La politique de Bon Voisinage et tolère certaines nationalisations et atteintes aux intérêts américains, l'amendement Platt est abrogé, libérant Cuba. Le président mexicain Cardenas nationalise certaines grandes entreprises américaine, crée la Pemex, et redistribue quantité de terre.

Cuba théoriquement vouée essentiellement à la culture du sucre depuis 1860, dont 82% va désormais sur le marché américain, est pourtant décrite comme étant le bordel des États-Unis, où tout plaisir se trouve tant qu'on est riche. Les États-Unis interviennent plusieurs fois pour stopper toutes tentatives de soulèvement populaires, et maintenir des gouvernements cubains leurs étant favorables. Le pays a une constitution socialement avancée, mais reste profondément corrompu, et une grande part des biens et exploitations sucrières sont aux mains de compagnies américaines. Depuis 1933, Fulgencio Batista est l'homme clef de Cuba. Sa prise de pouvoir autoritaire en 1952 n'aboutit pas à une ignoble dictature, mais à une dictature où la corruption perdure, et la présence américaine s'accroît. Certains révolutionnaires, tel Fidel Castro, organisent une révolution pour rétablir un état démocratique et se libérer de la présence américaine.

Partis du Mexique sur un navire nommé Ganma le 2 décembre 1956, les 82 barbudos de Castro sont finalement réduit à 13, et mènent une guérilla de montagne, dont l'action principale fut un travail de propagande, par exemple via Radio Rebelde. De plus en plus puissante face à une armée cubaine démotivée, la guérilla conquiert Cuba d'octobre 1958 au 1er janvier 1959.

Mais Castro, qui s'affirme d'abord comme non socialiste, engage finalement son pays dans les réformes agraires et les nationalistations de mai 1959 et surtout décembre 1960 qui poussent John Kennedy à intervenir, c'est l'épisode de la Baie des cochons, le 16 avril 1961. Mais au lieu de ramener Cuba dans la sphère américaine, cela radicalise sa position, et Cuba proclame son caractère socialiste, se rapproche de l'URSS, et s'arme, menant à la crise des missiles de Cuba d'octobre 1962.

Autoritarian Latino-america (1970-1980)

Voir aussi le coup d'état brésilien de 1964, coup d'État chilien du 11 septembre 1973, contre Salvador Allende, coup d'État argentin de 1976, et l'opération Juste Cause à Panama.

Democratisation dsince 1990

American policies and doctrines imposed on Latin America

See discussion page for how you can help translate this article or section.

See also

  • Pre-Columbian :

Mesoamerica : Aztec, Huastec, Mixtec, Maya, Olmec, Pipil, Tarascan, Teotihuacán, Toltec, Totonac, Zapotec
South America : Chavin, Chibcha, Chimor, Chachapoya, Huari, Inca, Moche, Nazca, Tiwanaku

  • Colonization :

British, danish, Dutch and New Netherland, French and New France, Portuguese, Russian , Spanish, New Spain, Conquistador, Spanish conquest of Yucatan, Spanish conquest of Mexico, Spanish missions in California, Swedish

  • History by Region :

History of South America, History of Central America, History of the Caribbean, History of the Americas

  • History by Country :

Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Uruguay, Venezuela.

Other Topics : Relations with the USA, Relations with Europe, Relations with the PRC, Feminist history in Latin America, History of the Jews in Latin America, Landless Workers' Movement

Bibliography

Introductions

  • Bakewell, Peter, A History of Latin America (Blackwell History of the World (Paperback)), Blackwell Publishers 1997
  • Brown, Jonathan C. Latin America: A Social History of the Colonial Period, Wadsworth Publishing Company, 2nd edition 2004
  • Burns, Bradford, Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History, paperback, PrenticeHall 2001, 7th edition
  • Green, Duncan, Silent Revolution: The Rise and Crisis of Market Economics in Latin America, New York University Press 2003
  • Herring, Hubert, A History of Latin America: from the Beginnings to the Present, 1955. ISBN 0-07-553562-9
  • Schoultz, Lars, Beneath the United States: A History of U.S. Policy Toward Latin America, Harvard University Press 1998,
  • Skidmore, Thomas E. and Smith, Peter H., Modern Latin America, Oxford University Press 2005

Handbooks

  • The Cambridge history of Latin America (11 vls)
  • The Cambridge history of the native peoples of the Americas (3vls)