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{{Short description|King of Alba from 1124 to 1153}}
{{featured article}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = David I
| succession   = [[King of Alba (Scotland)]] 
| moretext     = ([[Style of the Scottish sovereign|more...]])
| succession1  = [[David I as Prince of the Cumbrians|Prince of the Cumbrians]] 
| image        = Malcolm IV, King of Scotland, charter to Kelso Abbey, 1159, initial (crop David I).jpg
| caption      =
| reign        = 23 April 1124 – 24 May 1153
| reign1       = 1113–1124
| coronation   = [[Scone, Scotland|Scone]], April or May 1124
| full name    = Dabíd mac Maíl Choluim
| predecessor  = [[Alexander I of Scotland|Alexander I]]
| successor    = [[Malcolm IV]]
| spouse       = [[Maud, Countess of Huntingdon]]
| issue        = {{ubl|Malcolm|[[Henry, Earl of Northumberland]]| Hodierna| Claricia}}
| royal house  = [[House of Dunkeld|Dunkeld]]
| father       = [[Malcolm III of Scotland]]
| mother       = [[Margaret of Wessex]]
| birth_date   = {{circa|1084}}
| birth_place  =
| death_date   = {{death date and age|1153|5|24|1084|df=y}}
| death_place  = [[Carlisle]]
| burial_date  =
| burial_place = [[Dunfermline Abbey]]
}}

'''David I''' or '''Dauíd mac Maíl Choluim''' ([[Scottish Gaelic|Modern Gaelic]]: ''Daibhidh I mac [Mhaoil] Chaluim'';<ref>Scottish Gaelic has effectively dropped the ''Máel'' in ''Máel Coluim'' (meaning "[[tonsure]]d devotee of [[Columba]]") so that the name is just ''Colum'' or ''Calum'' (meaning "Columba"); the name was borrowed into non-Gaelic languages before this change occurred.</ref> {{circa|1084}} – 24 May 1153) was a 12th century ruler and [[saint]] who was [[David I as Prince of the Cumbrians|Prince of the Cumbrians]] from 1113 to 1124 and later [[King of Scotland]] from 1124 to 1153. The youngest son of [[King Malcolm III]] and [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Queen Margaret]], David spent most of his childhood in Scotland but was exiled to [[Kingdom of England|England]] temporarily in 1093. Perhaps after 1100, he became a dependent at the court of [[King Henry I of England]], by whom he was influenced.

When David's brother [[Alexander I of Scotland|Alexander I]] died in 1124, David chose, with the backing of Henry I, to take the [[Kingdom of Alba]] (Scotland) for himself. He was forced to engage in warfare against his rival and nephew, [[Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair]]. Subduing the latter seems to have taken David ten years, a struggle that involved the destruction of [[Óengus of Moray|Óengus]], [[Mormaer of Moray]]. David's victory allowed expansion of control over more distant regions theoretically part of his Kingdom. After the death of his former patron Henry I, David supported the claims of Henry's daughter and his own niece, [[Empress Matilda]], to the throne of England. In the process, he came into conflict with [[Stephen, King of England|King Stephen]] and was able to expand his power in [[northern England]], despite his defeat at the [[Battle of the Standard]] in 1138. David I is a saint of the [[Catholic Church]], with his [[feast day]] celebrated on 24 May.<ref name="Thurston pp. 383">Thurston & Attwater, ''Butler's Lives of the Saints'', pp. 383–384.</ref><ref name="Dawid">{{Cite web |title=Dawid |url=https://deon.pl/imiona-swietych/dawid,2108 |access-date=10 December 2021 |website=DEON.pl |language=pl}}</ref>

The term "[[Davidian Revolution]]" is used by many scholars to summarise the changes that took place in Scotland during his reign. These included his foundation of [[burgh]]s and regional markets, implementation of the ideals of [[Gregorian Reform]], foundation of [[monasteries]], Normanisation of the Scottish government, and the introduction of [[feudalism]] through immigrant [[Anglo-Normans|Anglo-Norman]], [[Normans|Norman]] and [[Flemish people|Flemish]] knights.

== Early years ==
David was born on a date unknown in 1084 in Scotland.<ref>Oram, ''David: The King Who Made Scotland'', p. 49.</ref> He was probably the eighth son of [[King Malcolm III]], and certainly the sixth and youngest borne by Malcolm's second wife, [[Margaret of Wessex]]. He was the grandson of [[King Duncan I]].<ref>Malcolm seems to have had two sons before he married Margaret, presumably by [[Ingibiorg Finnsdottir]]. [[Duncan II of Scotland]] was one, and there was another called Domnall who died in 1085, see ''[[Annals of Ulster]]'', s.a. 1085.2, [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100001A/text656.html here]; see also Oram, ''David'', p. 23; and Duncan, ''The Kingship of the Scots'', p. 55; the possibility that Máel Coluim had another son, also named Máel Coluim, is open, G. W. S. Barrow, "Malcolm III (d. 1093)".</ref>

In 1093, King Malcolm and David's brother Edward were killed at the [[River Aln]] during an invasion of [[Northumberland]].<ref>Duncan, ''Scotland: The Making of the Kingdom'', p. 121.</ref> David and his two brothers [[Alexander I of Scotland|Alexander]] and [[Edgar of Scotland|Edgar]] were probably present when their mother died shortly afterwards.<ref>See A.O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 114, n. 1.</ref> According to later medieval tradition, the three brothers were in [[Edinburgh]] when they were besieged by their paternal uncle [[Donald III]],<ref>e.g. John Fordun, ''Chronica gentis Scotorum'', II, 209.</ref> who made himself king.<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 40.</ref> It is not certain what happened next, but an insertion in the ''[[Chronicle of Melrose]]'' states that Donald forced his three nephews into exile, although he was allied with another of his nephews, [[Edmund of Scotland|Edmund]].<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Early Sources'', vol. II, p. 89.</ref> John of Fordun wrote, centuries later, that an escort into England was arranged for them by their maternal uncle [[Edgar Ætheling]].<ref>John Fordun, ''Chronica gentis Scotorum'', II, 209–210.</ref>

[[File:William2.jpg|thumb|upright|[[William II of England|William]] "Rufus", the Red, King of the English, and partial instigator of the Scottish civil war, 1093–1097.]]

[[King William Rufus of England]] opposed Donald's accession to the northerly kingdom. He sent the eldest son of Malcolm, David's half-brother [[Duncan II of Scotland|Duncan]], into Scotland with an army. Duncan was killed within the year,<ref>''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', MS. E, s.a. 1094; A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 118; see also A. O. Anderson, ''Early Sources'', vol. II, pp. 90–91.</ref> and so in 1097 William sent Duncan's half-brother Edgar into Scotland. The latter was more successful and was crowned by the end of 1097.<ref>''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', MS. E, s.a. 1097; A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 119.</ref>

During the power struggle of 1093–1097, David was in England. In 1093, he may have been about nine years old.<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 49.</ref> From 1093 until 1103, David's presence cannot be accounted for in detail, but he appears to have been in Scotland for the remainder of the 1090s. When William Rufus was killed, his brother [[Henry Beauclerc]] seized power and married David's sister, [[Matilda of Scotland|Matilda]]. The marriage made David the brother-in-law of the ruler of England. From that point onwards, David was probably an important figure at the English court.<ref>For David's upbringing and transformation of fortune at the Anglo-Norman court, see the partially hypothetical account in Oram, ''David'', pp. 59–72.</ref> Despite his Gaelic background, by the end of his stay in England, David had become a fully Normanised prince. [[William of Malmesbury]] wrote that it was in this period that David "rubbed off all tarnish of Scottish barbarity through being polished by intercourse and friendship with us".<ref>William of Malmesbury, ''Gesta Regum Anglorum'', W. Stubbs (ed.), ''Rolls Series'', no. 90, vol. II, p. 476; trans. A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', (1908), p. 157.</ref>

== Early rule 1113–1124 ==
{{Main|David I as Prince of the Cumbrians}}

=== Prince of the Cumbrians ===
[[File:DavidianCumbria-en.svg|thumb|left|Map of David's principality of "the Cumbrians"{{image reference needed|date=December 2022}}]]

David's brother King Edgar had visited William Rufus in May 1099 and bequeathed to David extensive territory to the south of the [[river Forth]].<ref>Oram, ''David: The King Who Made Scotland'', pp. 59–60.</ref> On 8 January 1107, Edgar died. His younger brother Alexander took the throne. It has been assumed that David took control of his [[inheritance]] – the southern lands bequeathed by Edgar – soon after the latter's death.<ref>Judith Green, "David I and Henry I", p. 3. She cites the gap in knowledge about David's whereabouts as evidence; for a brief outline of David's itinerary, see Barrow, ''The Charters of David I'', pp. 38–41</ref> However, it cannot be shown that he possessed his inheritance until his foundation of [[Selkirk Abbey]] late in 1113.<ref>See Oram, ''David'', pp. 60–62; Duncan, ''The Kingship of the Scots'', pp. 60–64.</ref> According to [[Richard Oram]], it was only in 1113, when Henry returned to England from [[Normandy]], that David was at last in a position to claim his inheritance in southern Scotland.<ref>For all this, see Oram, ''David'', pp. 59–63.</ref>

King Henry's backing seems to have been enough to force King Alexander to recognise his younger brother's claims. This probably occurred without bloodshed but through the threat of force nonetheless.<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', (1908), p. 193.</ref> David's aggression seems to have inspired resentment amongst some native Scots. A [[Middle Gaelic]] quatrain from this period complains that:
{{Verse translation |lang=mga
|
1=Olc a ndearna mac Mael Colaim,
ar cosaid re hAlaxandir,
do-ní le gach mac rígh romhaind,
foghail ar faras Albain.
|
2=It's bad what Máel Coluim's son has done;
dividing us from Alexander;
he causes, like each king's son before;
the plunder of stable Alba.<ref>Thomas Owen Clancy, ''The Triumph Tree'', p.184; full treatment of this is given in Clancy, "A Gaelic Polemic Quatrain from the Reign of Alexander I, ca. 1113" in Scottish Gaelic Studies vol.20 (2000), pp. 88–96.</ref>
}}

If "divided from" is anything to go by, this quatrain may have been written in David's new territories in southern Scotland.<ref>Clancy, "A Gaelic Polemic Quatrain", p. 88.</ref> The lands in question consisted of the [[Shires of Scotland]] of [[Roxburghshire]], [[Selkirkshire]], [[Berwickshire]], [[Peeblesshire]] and [[Lanarkshire]]. David, moreover, gained the title {{lang|la|princeps Cumbrensis}}, "[[Prince of the Cumbrians]]", as attested in David's charters from this era.<ref>For all this, see Oram, ''David'', pp. 62–64; for ''Princeps Cumbrensis'', see Archibald Lawrie, ''Early Scottish Charters Prior to A.D. 1153'', (Glasgow, 1905), no. 46.</ref> Although this was a large slice of Scotland south of the river Forth, the region of Galloway-proper was entirely outside David's control.<ref>Richard Oram, ''The Lordship of Galloway'', (Edinburgh, 2000), pp. 54–61; see also following references.</ref> David may perhaps have had varying degrees of overlordship in parts of [[Dumfriesshire]], [[Ayrshire]], [[Dunbartonshire]] and [[Renfrewshire (historic)|Renfrewshire]].<ref>See, for instance, Dauvit Broun, "The Welsh Identity of the Kingdom of Strathclyde", in ''The Innes Review'', Vol. 55, no. 2 (Autumn, 2004), pp. 138–140, n. 117; see also Forte, Oram, & Pedersen, ''The Viking Empires'', (Cambridge, 2005), pp. 96–97.</ref> In the lands between Galloway and the Principality of Cumbria, David eventually set up large-scale marcher lordships, such as [[Annandale, Dumfries and Galloway|Annandale]] for [[Robert de Brus, 1st Lord of Annandale|Robert de Brus]], [[Cunninghame|Cunningham]] for [[Hugh de Morville, Constable of Scotland|Hugh de Morville]], and possibly [[Strathgryfe]] for [[Walter Fitzalan]].<ref>E.g., Oram, ''David'', p. 113, also n. 7.</ref>

=== Earl of Huntingdon ===
[[File:Henry1.jpg|thumb|180px|[[King Henry I of England]], drawn by [[Matthew Paris]]. Henry's policy in [[northern Britain]] and the [[Irish Sea]] region essentially made David's political life.]]

In the later part of 1113, King Henry gave David the hand of Matilda of Huntingdon, daughter and heiress of [[Waltheof, Earl of Northumbria]]. The marriage brought with it the "Honour of Huntingdon", a lordship scattered through the shires of [[Northampton]], [[Huntingdon]], and [[Bedford]]. Within a few years, Matilda bore him two sons: Malcolm, who died young, and [[Henry of Scotland|Henry]], whom David named after his patron.<ref name=BarrowODNB>G. W. S. Barrow, "David I (c. 1085–1153)".</ref>

The new territories which David controlled were a valuable supplement to his income and manpower, increasing his status as one of the most powerful magnates in the Kingdom of the English. Moreover, Matilda's father Waltheof had been [[Earl of Northumberland]], a defunct lordship which had covered the far north of England and included [[Cumberland]] and [[Westmorland]], [[Northumberland]]-proper, as well as overlordship of the bishopric of [[Durham, England|Durham]]. After King Henry's death, David revived the claim to this earldom for his son, Henry.<ref>For all this, see Duncan, ''Scotland: The Making of the Kingdom'', pp. 134, 217–218, 223; see also, for Durham and part of the earldom of Northumberland in the eyes of Earl Henry, Paul Dalton, "Scottish Influence on Durham, 1066–1214", in David Rollason, Margaret Harvey & Michael Prestwich (eds.), ''Anglo-Norman Durham, 1093–1193'', pp. 349–351; see also G. W. S. Barrow, "The Kings of Scotland and Durham", in Rollason ''et al.'' (eds.), ''Anglo-Norman Durham'', p. 318.</ref>

David's activities and whereabouts after 1114 are not always easy to trace. He spent much of his time outside his principality, in England and Normandy. Despite the death of his sister on 1 May 1118, David still possessed the favour of King Henry when his brother Alexander died in 1124, leaving Scotland without a king.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 69–72.</ref>

== Political and military events in Scotland during David's kingship ==
{{main|Political and military events in Scotland during the reign of David I}}

In spite of the fact that David spent his childhood in Scotland, Michael Lynch and Richard Oram portray him as having little initial connection with the culture and society of the Scots;<ref>Lynch, ''Scotland: A New History'', p. 79; Oram, ''David'', pp. 75–76.</ref> but both likewise argue that David became increasingly re-Gaelicised in the later stages of his reign.<ref>Lynch, ''Scotland: A New History'', p. 83; Oram, ''David'', esp. for instance, pp. 96, 126.</ref> Whatever the case, David's claim to be heir to the Scottish kingdom was doubtful. He was the youngest of eight sons of the fifth from last king. Two more recent kings had produced sons, [[William fitz Duncan]], son of King Duncan II, and [[Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair|Máel Coluim]], son of the last King Alexander, but since Scots had never adopted the rules of [[primogeniture]] that was not a barrier to his kingship, and unlike David, neither William nor Máel Coluim had the support of Henry. So when Alexander died in 1124, the aristocracy of Scotland could either accept David as king or face war with both David and Henry.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 70–72.</ref>

=== Coronation and struggle for the kingdom ===
Alexander's son, Máel Coluim, chose war. [[Orderic Vitalis]] reported that [[Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair]] "affected to snatch the kingdom from [David], and fought against him two sufficiently fierce battles; but David, who was loftier in understanding and in power and wealth, conquered him and his followers".<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 158.</ref> Máel Coluim escaped unharmed into areas of Scotland not yet under David's control, and in those areas gained shelter and aid.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 84–85.</ref>

In either April or May of the same year, David was crowned King of Scotland ({{langx|sga|[[rí]](gh) Alban}}; [[Medieval Latin]]: {{lang|la|[[rex Scotorum|rex Scottorum]]}})<ref>Chibnall, ''Anglo-Norman Studies'', p. 33</ref> at [[Scone, Scotland|Scone]]. If later Scottish and Irish evidence can be taken as evidence, the ceremony of coronation was a series of elaborate traditional rituals,<ref>John Bannerman, "The Kings Poet", pp. 120–149.</ref> of the kind infamous in the Anglo-French world of the 12th century for their "unchristian" elements.<ref>John J. O'Meara (ed.), ''Gerald of Wales: The History and Topography of Ireland'' (London, 1951), p. 110.</ref>

[[Aelred of Rievaulx]], friend and one-time member of David's court, reported that David "so abhorred those acts of homage which are offered by the Scottish nation in the manner of their fathers upon the recent promotion of their kings, that he was with difficulty compelled by the bishops to receive them".<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 232.</ref>

Outside his Cumbrian principality and the southern fringe of Scotland-proper, David exercised little power in the 1120s, and in the words of Richard Oram, was "king of Scots in little more than name".<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 87.</ref> He was probably in that part of Scotland he did rule for most of the time between late 1127 and 1130.<ref name="Oram">Oram, ''David'', p. 83.</ref> However, he was at the court of Henry in 1126 and in early 1127,<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', pp. 163–167.</ref> and returned to Henry's court in 1130, serving as a judge at [[Woodstock Palace|Woodstock]] for the [[treason]] trial of [[Geoffrey de Clinton]].<ref name="Oram"/> It was in this year that David's wife, Matilda of Huntingdon, died. Possibly as a result of this,<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 84.</ref> and while David was still in southern England,<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 167.</ref>

Scotland-proper rose up in arms against him. The instigator was, again, his nephew Máel Coluim, who now had the support of [[Óengus of Moray]]. King Óengus was David's most powerful vassal, a man who, as grandson of [[King Lulach of Scotland]], even had his own claim to the kingdom. The rebel Scots had advanced into [[Angus, Scotland|Angus]], where they were met by David's [[Mercia]]n [[constable]], [[Edward the Constable|Edward]]; a battle took place at [[Stracathro]] near [[Brechin]]. According to the ''[[Annals of Ulster]]'', 1000 of Edward's army, and 4000 of Óengus' army – including Óengus himself – died.<ref>''Annals of Ulster'', s.a. U1130.4, [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100001A/text701.html here] ([http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100001A/text700.html trans])</ref>

According to Orderic Vitalis, Edward followed up the killing of Óengus by marching north into Moray itself, which, in Orderic's words, "lacked a defender and lord"; and so Edward, "with God's help obtained the entire duchy of that extensive district".<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 167; Anderson uses the word "earldom", but Orderic used the word ''ducatum'', [[duchy]].</ref> However, this was far from the end of it. Máel Coluim escaped, and four years of continuing civil war followed; for David, this period was quite simply a "struggle for survival".<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 88.</ref>

It appears that David asked for and obtained extensive military aid from King Henry. Aelred of Rievaulx related that at this point a large fleet and a large army of Norman knights, including [[Walter Espec]], were sent by Henry to [[Carlisle]] in order to assist David's attempt to root out his Scottish enemies.<ref>A.O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', pp. 193–194; see also Oram, ''David'', p. 86.</ref> The fleet seems to have been used in the [[Irish Sea]], the [[Firth of Clyde]] and the entire [[Argyll]] coast, where Máel Coluim was probably at large among supporters. In 1134, Máel Coluim was captured and imprisoned in [[Roxburgh Castle]].<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Early Sources'', vol. II, p. 183.</ref> Since modern historians no longer confuse him with "[[Malcolm MacHeth]]", it is clear that nothing more is ever heard of Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair, except perhaps that his sons were later allied with [[Somerled]].<ref>Ross, "Identity of the Prisoner at Roxburgh", Accessed 1 December 2022.</ref>

=== Pacification of the west and north ===
Richard Oram puts forward the suggestion that it was during this period that David granted [[Walter fitz Alan]] [[Strathgryfe]], with northern [[Kyle, Ayrshire|Kyle]] and the area around [[Renfrew]], forming what would become the "Stewart" lordship of Strathgryfe; he also suggests that [[Hugh de Morville, Constable of Scotland|Hugh de Morville]] may have gained [[Cunninghame|Cunningham]] and the settlement of "Strathyrewen" (i.e. [[Irvine, North Ayrshire|Irvine]]). This would indicate that the 1130–1134 campaign had resulted in the acquisition of these territories.<ref>For all this, see Oram, ''David'', pp. 93–96.</ref>

How long it took to pacify Moray is not known, but in this period David appointed his nephew William fitz Duncan to succeed Óengus, perhaps in compensation for the exclusion from the succession to the Scottish throne caused by the coming of age of David's son [[Henry of Scotland|Henry]]. William may have been given the daughter of Óengus in marriage, cementing his authority in the region. The burghs of [[Elgin, Moray|Elgin]] and [[Forres]] may have been founded at this point, consolidating royal authority in Moray.<ref>For all this, see Oram, ''David'', pp. 93–96; Oram also believes that the burghs of [[Auldearn]] and [[Inverness]] may also have been founded at this time, but it is more usual to ascribe these to the reign of David's grandson [[William the Lion]]; see, for instance, McNeill, Peter & MacQueen, Hector (eds), ''Atlas of Scottish History to 1707'', (Edinburgh, 1996), pp. 196–198.</ref> David also founded [[Urquhart Priory]], possibly as a "victory monastery", and assigned to it a percentage of his ''[[cain]]'' (tribute) from Argyll.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 91–93.</ref>

During this period too, a marriage was arranged between the son of [[Matad, Mormaer of Atholl]], and the daughter of [[Haakon Paulsson]], [[Earl of Orkney]]. The marriage temporarily secured the northern frontier of the kingdom and held out the prospect that a son of one of David's [[mormaer]]s could gain [[Orkney]] and [[Caithness]] for the Kingdom of Scotland. Thus, by the time Henry I died on 1 December 1135, David had more of Scotland under his control than ever before.<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 119.</ref>

=== Dominating the north ===
[[File:Kinloss Abbey.jpg|thumb|right|The ruins of [[Kinloss Abbey]] in [[Moray]], founded by David in 1150 for a colony of [[Melrose Abbey|Melrose Cistercians]].]]

While fighting [[Stephen of England|King Stephen]] and attempting to dominate northern England in the years following 1136, David was continuing his drive for control of the far north of Scotland. In 1139, his cousin, the five-year-old [[Harald Maddadsson]], was given the title of "Earl" and half the lands of the [[earldom of Orkney]], in addition to Scottish [[Caithness]]. Throughout the 1140s, Caithness and [[Sutherland]] were brought back under the Scottish zone of control.<ref>Richard Oram, "David I and the Conquest of Moray", p. 11.</ref> Sometime before 1146, David appointed a native Scot called [[Aindréas]] to be the first [[Bishop of Caithness]], a bishopric which was based at [[Halkirk]], near [[Thurso]], in an area which was ethnically Scandinavian.<ref>John Dowden, ''The Bishops of Scotland'', ed. J. Maitland Thomson, (Glasgow, 1912), p. 232; Kenneth Jackson, ''The Gaelic Notes in the Book of Deer: The Osborn Bergin Memorial Lecture 1970'', (Cambridge, 1972), p. 80.</ref>

In 1150, it looked like Caithness and the whole earldom of Orkney were going to come under permanent Scottish control. However, David's plans for the north soon began to encounter problems. In 1151, [[King Eystein II of Norway]] put a spanner in the works by sailing through the waterways of Orkney with a large fleet and catching the young Harald unaware in his residence at Thurso. Eystein forced Harald to pay [[fealty]] as a condition of his release. Later in the year David hastily responded by supporting the claims to the Orkney earldom of Harald's rival [[Erlend Haraldsson]], granting him half of Caithness in opposition to Harald. King Eystein responded in turn by making a similar grant to this same Erlend, cancelling the effect of David's grant. David's weakness in Orkney was that the Norwegian kings were not prepared to stand back and let him reduce their power.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 199–200.</ref>

== England ==
{{main|England and King David I}}
[[File:Stepan Blois.jpg|thumb|upright|King Stephen drawn by [[Matthew Paris]]. David used Stephen's "[[usurpation]]" as his ''[[casus belli]]'' with England, even if it was not the actual reason.]]

David's relationship with England and the English crown in these years is usually interpreted in two ways. Firstly, his actions are understood in relation to his connections with the King of England. No historian is likely to deny that David's early career was largely manufactured by King Henry I of England. David was the latter's brother-in-law and "[[Mentorship|greatest protégé]]",<ref>Oram, ''Lordship of Galloway'', pp. 59, 63.</ref> one of Henry's "new men".<ref>Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', pp. 202–203.</ref> His hostility to Stephen can be interpreted as an effort to uphold the intended inheritance of Henry I, the succession of his daughter and David's niece [[Empress Matilda]]. David carried out his wars in her name, joined her when she arrived in England, and later knighted her son [[Henry II of England|Henry]].<ref>Stringer, ''Reign of Stephen'', pp. 28–37; Stringer, "State-Building in Twelfth-Century Britain", pp. 40–62; Green, "Anglo-Scottish Relations", pp. 53–72; Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest of the North'', p. 141ff; Blanchard, "Lothian and Beyond", pp. 23–46.</ref>

However, David's policy towards England can be interpreted in an additional way. David was the independence-loving king trying to build a "Scoto-Northumbrian" realm by seizing the most northerly parts of the English kingdom. In this perspective, David's support for Matilda is used as a pretext for land-grabbing. David's maternal descent from the [[House of Wessex]] and his son Henry's maternal descent from the English earls of Northumberland is thought to have further encouraged such a project, a project which came to an end only after Henry II ordered David's child successor [[Máel Coluim IV]] to hand over the most important of David's gains. It is clear that neither one of these interpretations can be taken without some weight being given to the other.<ref>Historians such as Stringer, Kapelle, Green and Blanchard (see previous note), emphasize David's role as an English magnate, while not denying his ambition; a middle line is perhaps Oram's supposed quest for a "Scoto-Northumbrian realm", ''David'', pp. 121–144, 167–189.</ref>

=== Usurpation of Stephen and First Treaty of Durham ===
Henry I had arranged his inheritance to pass to his daughter [[Empress Matilda]]. Instead, [[Stephen of England|Stephen]], younger brother of [[Theobald II, Count of Blois]], seized the throne.<ref>M. T. Clancy, ''England and its Rulers'', pp. 84–85; Robert Bartlett, ''England under the Norman and Angevin Kings'', p. 10.</ref> David had been the first layperson to take the oath to uphold the succession of Matilda in 1127, and when Stephen was crowned on 22 December 1135, David decided to make war.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 121–123.</ref>

Before December was over, David marched into northern England, and by the end of January, he had occupied the castles of [[Carlisle Castle|Carlisle]], [[Wark on Tyne|Wark]], [[Alnwick]], [[Norham]] and [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]]. By February David was at Durham, but an army led by King Stephen met him there. Rather than fight a pitched battle, a treaty was agreed whereby David would retain Carlisle, while David's son Henry was re-granted the title and half the lands of the earldom of Huntingdon, territory which had been confiscated during David's revolt. On Stephen's side, he received back the other castles; and while David would do no homage, Stephen was to receive the homage of Henry for both Carlisle and the other English territories. Stephen also gave the rather worthless but for David face-saving promise that if he ever chose to resurrect the defunct earldom of Northumberland, Henry would be given first consideration. Importantly, the issue of Matilda was not mentioned. However, the first Durham treaty quickly broke down after David took insult at the treatment of his son Henry at Stephen's court.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 122–125.</ref>

=== Renewal of war and Clitheroe ===
When the winter of 1136–1137 was over, David prepared again to invade England. The king of the Scots massed an army on [[Northumberland|Northumberland's border]], to which the English responded by gathering an army at [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]].<ref name="Crouch">[[David Crouch (historian)|David Crouch]], ''The Reign of King Stephen, 1135–1154'', Ed. Longman, 2000, p. 70.</ref> Once more pitched battle was avoided, and instead, a truce was agreed until December.<ref name="Crouch"/> When December fell, David demanded that Stephen hand over the whole of the old earldom of Northumberland. Stephen's refusal led to David's third invasion, this time in January 1138.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 126–127.</ref>

The army which invaded England in January and February 1138 shocked the English chroniclers. [[Richard of Hexham]] called it "an execrable army, savager than any race of heathen yielding honour to neither God nor man" and that it "harried the whole province and slaughtered everywhere folk of either sex, of every age and condition, destroying, pillaging and burning the vills, churches and houses".<ref>e.g. accounts of Richard of Hexham and Ailred of Rievaulx in A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 180 note 4.</ref> Several doubtful stories of cannibalism were recorded by chroniclers, and these same chroniclers paint a picture of routine enslavings, as well as killings of churchmen, women and infants.<ref>e.g. Richard of Hexham, [[John of Worcester]] and John of Hexham at A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 181.</ref>

By February King Stephen marched north to deal with David. The two armies avoided each other, and Stephen was soon on the road south. In the summer David split his army into two forces, sending William fitz Duncan to march into [[Lancashire]], where he harried [[Furness]] and [[Craven in the Domesday Book|Craven]]. On 10 June, William fitz Duncan met a force of knights and men-at-arms. A pitched battle took place, the [[battle of Clitheroe]], and the English army was routed.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 132–133.</ref>

=== Battle of the Standard and Second Treaty of Durham ===
By later July 1138, the two Scottish armies had reunited in "St Cuthbert's land", that is, in the lands controlled by the [[Bishop of Durham]], on the far side of the [[river Tyne]]. Another English army had mustered to meet the Scots, this time led by [[William, Earl of Aumale]]. The victory at Clitheroe was probably what inspired David to risk battle. David's force, apparently 26,000 strong and several times larger than the English army, met the English on 22 August at Cowdon Moor near [[Northallerton]], [[North Yorkshire]].<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 136–137; A. O. Anderson, ''Early Sources'', p. 190.</ref>

[[File:David Seal (rev).JPG|right|thumb|Steel engraving and enhancement of the reverse side of the Great Seal of David I, a picture in the Anglo-Continental style depicting David as a warrior leader.]]

The [[Battle of the Standard]], as the encounter came to be called, was a defeat for the Scots. Afterwards, David and his surviving notables retired to Carlisle. Although the result was a defeat, it was not by any means decisive. David retained the bulk of his army and thus the power to go on the offensive again. The [[Siege of Wark (1138)|siege of Wark]], for instance, which had been going on since January, continued until it was captured in November. David continued to occupy [[Cumberland]] as well as much of [[Northumberland]].<ref name="Oram_2">Oram, ''David'', pp. 140–144.</ref>

On 26 September [[Alberic of Ostia|Cardinal Alberic]], [[Bishop of Ostia]], arrived at Carlisle where David had called together his kingdom's nobles, abbots and bishops. Alberic was there to investigate the controversy over the issue of the Bishop of Glasgow's allegiance or non-allegiance to the Archbishop of York. Alberic played the role of peace broker, and David agreed to a six-week truce which excluded the siege of Wark. On 9 April, David and Stephen's wife [[Matilda of Boulogne]] (daughter of [[Mary of Scotland, Countess of Boulogne|Mary of Scotland]], and so another niece of David) met each other at Durham and agreed a settlement. David's son Henry was given the earldom of Northumberland and was restored to the earldom of Huntingdon and lordship of [[Doncaster]]; David himself was allowed to keep Carlisle and Cumberland. King Stephen was to retain possession of the strategically vital castles of [[Bamburgh]] and Newcastle. This effectively fulfilled all of David's war aims.<ref name="Oram_2"/>

=== Arrival of Matilda and the renewal of conflict ===
[[File:Empress matilda.jpg|thumb|Matilda, former empress in [[Holy Roman Empire]]]]

The settlement with Stephen was not set to last long. The arrival in England of [[Empress Matilda]] gave David an opportunity to renew the conflict with Stephen. In either May or June, David travelled to the south of England and entered Matilda's company; he was present for her expected coronation at [[Westminster Abbey]], though this never took place. David was there until September when the Empress found herself surrounded at [[Rout of Winchester|Winchester]].<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 170–172.</ref>

This civil war, or "[[the Anarchy]]" as it was later called, enabled David to strengthen his own position in northern England. While David consolidated his hold on his own and his son's newly acquired lands, he also sought to expand his influence. The castles at [[The Castle, Newcastle|Newcastle]] and [[Bamburgh Castle|Bamburgh]] were again brought under his control, and he attained dominion over all of England north-west of the [[river Ribble]] and [[Pennines]] while holding the north-east as far south as the [[river Tyne]], on the borders of the core territory of the bishopric of [[Durham, England|Durham]]. While his son brought all the senior barons of [[Northumberland]] into his entourage, David rebuilt the [[Carlisle Castle|fortress of Carlisle]]. Carlisle quickly replaced [[Roxburgh]] as his favoured residence. David's acquisition of the mines at [[Alston, Cumbria|Alston]] on the [[South Tyne]] enabled him to begin minting the [[Kingdom of Scotland]]'s first silver coinage. David, meanwhile, issued charters to [[Shrewsbury Abbey]] in respect to their lands in [[Lancashire]].<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 179.</ref>

=== Bishopric of Durham and the Archbishopric of York ===
However, David's successes were in many ways balanced by his failures. David's greatest disappointment during this time was his inability to ensure control of the [[Bishopric of Durham]] and the [[Archbishopric of York]]. David had attempted to appoint his chancellor, [[William Comyn, Lord of Badenoch|William Comyn]], to the bishopric of Durham, which had been vacant since the death of Bishop [[Geoffrey Rufus]] in 1140. Between 1141 and 1143, Comyn was the ''de facto'' bishop, and had control of the bishop's castle; but he was resented by the [[Chapter (religion)|chapter]]. Despite controlling the town of Durham, David's only hope of ensuring his election and consecration was gaining the support of the [[List of papal legates to England|papal legate]], [[Henry of Blois]], [[Bishop of Winchester]] and brother of King Stephen. Despite obtaining the support of Empress Matilda, David was unsuccessful and had given up by the time [[William of St. Barbara]] was elected to the see in 1143.<ref>For David's struggle for control over Durham see Oram, ''David'', pp. 169–175.</ref>

David also attempted to interfere in the succession to the archbishopric of York. [[William of York|William FitzHerbert]], nephew of King Stephen, found his position undermined by the collapsing political fortune of Stephen in the north of England and was deposed by the Pope. David used his [[Cistercian]] connections to build a bond with [[Henry Murdac]], the new archbishop. Despite the support of [[Pope Eugene III]], supporters of King Stephen and William FitzHerbert managed to prevent Henry taking up his post at York. In 1149, Henry sought the support of David. David seized on the opportunity to bring the archdiocese under his control and marched on the city. However, Stephen's supporters became aware of David's intentions and informed King Stephen. Stephen therefore marched to the city and installed a new garrison. David decided not to risk such an engagement and withdrew.<ref>For David's struggle for control over York, see pp. 186–189.</ref> Richard Oram has conjectured that David's ultimate aim was to bring the whole of the ancient [[Kingdom of Northumbria]] into his dominion. For Oram, this event was the turning point, "the chance to radically redraw the political map of the [[British Isles]] [had been] lost forever".<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 189.</ref>

== Scottish Church ==
{{main|David I and the Scottish Church}}
[[File:David Seal (ob).JPG|thumb|Steel engraving and enhancement of the obverse side of the Great Seal of David I, portraying David in the "Continental" fashion as the other-worldly maintainer of peace and defender of justice.]]

[[File:Abernethy Tower.jpg|thumb|The [[Irish round tower|round tower]] at [[Abernethy, Perth and Kinross|Abernethy]]. Another such tower exists at [[Brechin Cathedral]]. They are one of the most conspicuous surviving traces of pre-Davidian Scottish church architecture.]]

Historical treatment of David I and the Scottish church usually acknowledges David's role as the defender of the Scottish church's independence from claims of overlordship by the [[Archbishop of York]] and the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]].<ref>Duncan, A.A.M., ''Scotland: The Making of the Kingdom'', Edinburgh, 1975; pp. 257–259</ref>

=== Innovations in the church system ===
It was once held that Scotland's episcopal sees and entire parochial system owed its origins to the innovations of David I. Today, scholars have moderated this view. [[Aelred of Rievaulx]] wrote in David's eulogy that when David came to power, "he found three or four bishops in the whole Scottish kingdom [north of the Forth], and the others wavering without a pastor to the loss of both morals and property; when he died, he left nine, both of ancient bishoprics which he himself restored and new ones which he erected".<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 233.</ref> Although David moved the bishopric of [[Mortlach, Scotland|Mortlach]] east to [[Old Aberdeen]], and arranged the creation of the [[diocese of Caithness]], no other bishoprics can be safely called David's creation.<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 158; Duncan, ''Making of the Kingdom'', pp. 257–260; see also Gordon Donaldson, "Scottish Bishop's Sees", pp. 106–117.</ref>

The [[Bishop of Glasgow|bishopric of Glasgow]] was restored rather than resurrected.<ref>Shead, "Origins of the Medieval Diocese of Glasgow", pp. 220–225.</ref> David appointed his reform-minded French chaplain [[John Capellanus]] to the bishopric<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 62.</ref> and carried out an [[inquest]], afterwards assigning to the bishopric all the lands of his principality, except those in the east which were already governed by the [[Bishop of St Andrews]].<ref>To a certain extent, the boundaries of David's Cumbrian Principality are conjecture on the basis of the boundaries of the diocese of Glasgow; Oram, ''David'', pp. 67–68.</ref> David was at least partly responsible for forcing semi-monastic "bishoprics" like [[Bishop of Brechin|Brechin]], [[Bishop of Dunkeld|Dunkeld]], [[Mortlach Parish Church|Mortlach]] ([[Aberdeen]]) and [[Bishop of Dunblane|Dunblane]] to become fully episcopal and firmly integrated into a national diocesan system.<ref>Barrow, ''Kingship and Unity'', pp. 67–68</ref>

As for the development of the parochial system, David's traditional role as its creator can not be sustained.<ref>Ian B. Cowan wrote that "the principle steps were taken during the reign of David I": Ian B. Cowan, "Development of the Parochial System", p. 44.</ref> Scotland already had an ancient system of parish churches dating to the [[Early Middle Ages]], and the kind of system introduced by David's Normanising tendencies can more accurately be seen as mild refashioning, rather than creation; he made the Scottish system as a whole more like that of [[France]] and [[England]], but he did not create it.<ref>Thomas Owen Clancy, "Annat and the Origins of the Parish", pp. 91–115.</ref>

=== Ecclesiastical disputes ===
One of the first problems David had to deal with as king was an ecclesiastical dispute with the [[English Church]]. The problem with the English Church concerned the subordination of Scottish sees to the archbishops of York and/or Canterbury, an issue which since his election in 1124 had prevented [[Robert of Scone]] from being consecrated to the see of [[St Andrews]] (Cenn Ríghmonaidh). Since the 11th century, the bishopric of St Andrews likely functioned as a ''de facto'' archbishopric. The title of "Archbishop" is accorded in Scottish and Irish sources to [[Giric (bishop of the Scots)|Bishop Giric]]<ref>Dauvit Broun, "Recovering the Full Text of Version A of the Foundation Legend", pp. 108–114.</ref> and [[Fothad II|Bishop Fothad II]].<ref>AU 1093.2, [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100001A/text664.html text] [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100001A/text663.html English translation]; see also Alan Orr Anderson, ''Early Sources '', p. 49.</ref>

[[File:St Rules Tower.jpg|left|thumb|220px|The tower of the church of St Riagal ([[Saint Regulus]]), at Cenn Ríghmonaidh, later named ([[St Andrews]]); this existed during David's reign.]]

The problem was that this archepiscopal status had not been cleared with the papacy, opening the way for English archbishops to claim the overlordship of the whole Scottish church. The man responsible was the new aggressively assertive Archbishop of York, [[Thurstan]]. His easiest target was the [[bishopric of Glasgow]], which being south of the [[river Forth]] was not regarded as part of Scotland nor the jurisdiction of St Andrews. In 1125, [[Pope Honorius II]] wrote to John, Bishop of Glasgow ordering him to submit to the archbishopric of York.<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', pp. 160–161.</ref> David ordered Bishop John of Glasgow to travel to the [[Holy See|Apostolic See]] in order to secure a [[pallium]] which would elevate the [[bishopric of St Andrews]] to an archbishopric with jurisdiction over Glasgow.<ref>Duncan, ''Scotland: The Making of the Kingdom'', p. 259; Oram, ''David'', p. 49.</ref>

Thurstan travelled to Rome, as did the Archbishop of Canterbury, [[William de Corbeil]], and both presumably opposed David's request. David however gained the support of King Henry, and the Archbishop of York agreed to a year's postponement of the issue and to consecrate [[Robert of Scone]] without making an issue of subordination.<ref>Duncan, ''Making of the Kingdom'', p. 260; John Dowden, ''Bishops of Scotland'', Glasgow ed., J. Maitland Thomson, 1912, pp. 4–5.</ref> York's claim over bishops north of the Forth was in practice abandoned for the rest of David's reign, although York maintained her more credible claims over Glasgow.<ref>Duncan, ''Scotland: The Making of the Kingdom'', pp. 60–61.</ref>

In 1151, David again requested a pallium for the Archbishop of St Andrews. [[Cardinal John Paparo]] met David at his residence in Carlisle in September 1151. Tantalisingly for David, the Cardinal was on his way to [[Ireland]] with four ''pallia'' to create four new Irish archbishoprics. When the Cardinal returned to Carlisle, David made the request. In David's plan, the new archdiocese would include all the bishoprics in David's Scottish territory, as well as [[bishopric of Orkney]] and the [[bishopric of the Isles]]. Unfortunately for David, the Cardinal does not appear to have brought the issue up with the papacy. In the following year, the papacy dealt David another blow by creating the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Nidaros|archbishopric of Trondheim]], a new [[Norway|Norwegian archbishopric]] embracing the bishoprics of the Isles and Orkney.<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 155.</ref>

== Succession and death ==
[[File:David I and Malcolm IV.jpg|thumb|200px|David alongside his designated successor, [[Malcolm IV of Scotland|Máel Coluim mac Eanric]]. Máel Coluim IV would reign for twelve years, in a reign marked for the young king's chastity and religious fervour.]]

Perhaps the greatest blow to David's plans came on 12 July 1152 when [[Henry, Earl of Northumberland]], David's heir, died. He had probably been suffering from some kind of illness for a long time. David had under a year to live, and he may have known that he was not going to be alive much longer. David quickly arranged for his grandson [[Malcolm IV]] to be made his successor, and for his younger grandson [[William the Lion|William]] to be made Earl of Northumberland. [[Donnchad I, Mormaer of Fife]], the senior magnate in Scotland-proper, was appointed as ''rector'', or [[regent]], and took the 11-year-old Malcolm around Scotland-proper on a tour to meet and gain the homage of his future Gaelic subjects. David's health began to fail seriously in the spring of 1153, and on 24 May 1153, David died in [[Carlisle Castle]].<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 200–202; G. W. S. Barrow, "David I ({{circa|1085–1153}})", gives the date as 24 May.</ref> In his obituary in the ''[[Annals of Tigernach]]'', he is called ''Dabíd mac Mail Colaim, rí Alban & Saxan'', "David, son of Malcolm, King of Scotland and England", a title which acknowledged the importance of the new English part of David's realm.<ref>''[[Annals of Tigernach]]'', s.a. 1153.4, [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G100002/text023.html here].</ref> He was buried before the high altar [[Dunfermline Abbey]] in early June.<ref name="BarrowODNB"/>

== Veneration ==
David I is recognised as a [[saint]] by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], with a feast day of 24 May, though it appears that he was never formally canonized. There are churches in Scotland which have him as their patron.<ref>[https://archedinburgh.org/about/our-saints/ "Archdiocese of St. Andrew's and Edinburgh"]</ref><ref name="Thurston pp. 383"/><ref name="Dawid"/> His mother [[Saint Margaret of Scotland]] was canonised in 1249.<ref>Lynch, ''Scotland: A New History'', p. 93</ref>

== Historiography ==
=== Medieval reputation ===
The earliest English assessments of David portray him as a pious king, a reformer and a civilising agent in a barbarian nation. For [[William of Newburgh]], David was a "King not barbarous of a barbarous nation", who "wisely tempered the fierceness of his barbarous nation". William praises David for his piety, noting that, among other saintly activities, "he was frequent in washing the feet of the poor" (this can be read literally: his mother, who is now patron saint of Scotland, was widely known and lauded for the same practice).<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Early Sources'', p. 231.</ref> Another of David's eulogists, his former courtier [[Aelred of Rievaulx]], echoes Newburgh's assertions and praises David for his justice as well as his piety, commenting that David's rule of the Scots meant that "the whole barbarity of that nation was softened ... as if forgetting their natural fierceness they submitted their necks to the laws which the royal gentleness dictated".<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Early Sources'', pp. 232–233</ref>

Although avoiding stress on 12th century Scottish "barbarity", the Lowland Scottish historians of the [[Late Middle Ages]] tend to repeat the accounts of earlier chronicle tradition. Much that was written was either directly transcribed from the earlier medieval chronicles themselves or was modelled closely upon them, even in the significant works of [[John of Fordun]], [[Andrew Wyntoun]] and [[Walter Bower]].<ref>Felix J. H. Skene & William Forbes Skene (ed.), ''John of Fordun's Chronicle of the Scottish Nation'', (Edinburgh, 1872), p. 200ff; Donaldson, ''The Sources of Scottish History'', p. 34: "... at what point its information about Scotland should receive credence is far from clear". Though Wyntoun, Fordun and Bower may have had access to documents which are no longer extant, much of their information is either duplicated in other records or cannot be corroborated; for a survey of David's historical reputation, see Oram, ''David'', pp. 203–225.</ref> For example, Bower includes in his text the eulogy written for David by Aelred of Rievaulx. This quotation extends to over twenty pages in the modern edition and exerted a great deal of influence over what became the traditional view of David in later works about Scottish history.<ref>John MacQueen, Winnifred MacQueen and D. E. R. Watt (eds.), ''Scotichronicon by Walter Bower'', vol. 3, (Aberdeen, 1995), p. 139ff.</ref> Historical treatment of David developed in the writings of later Scottish historians, and the writings of men like [[John Major (philosopher)|John Mair]], [[George Buchanan]], [[Hector Boece]], and Bishop [[John Lesley|John Leslie]] ensured that by the 18th century, a picture of David as a pious, justice-loving state-builder and vigorous maintainer of Scottish independence had emerged.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 213–217.</ref>

Moreover, Bower stated in his eulogy that David always had the ambition to join a [[crusade]], which was prevented eventually by his death.{{sfn|Macquarrie|1997|p=81}} In addition, Aelred of Rievaulx hinted that David expressed his desire to be part of the [[Second Crusade]] himself, but he was dissuaded by his subjects.{{sfn|Cowan|Mackay|Macquarrie|1983|p=18}} However, David had already met [[Hugues de Payens]], the [[List of grand masters of the Knights Templar|first Grand Master]] of the [[Knights Templar]], in 1128 in Scotland.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eyeofthepsychic.com/rosslyn_excursions/ |title=The Stone Puzzle of Rosslyn Chapel |website=eyeofthepsychic.com |access-date=9 May 2018}}</ref> In the meantime, the [[Knights Templar in Scotland|Order]] established a seat at [[Balantrodoch]], now [[Temple, Midlothian]] on the South Esk ([[River Esk, Lothian]]).<ref>Ferduson, ''The Knights Templar and Scotland'', pp. 46–47.</ref>

=== Modern treatment ===
[[File:Statue of David I on the West Door of St. Giles High Kirk, Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|180px|Statue of David I on the [[St Giles' Cathedral|West Door of St. Giles High Kirk]], [[Edinburgh]]]]

In the modern period, there has been more of an emphasis on David's state-building and the effects of his changes on Scottish cultural development. Lowland Scots tended to trace the origins of their culture to the marriage of David's father Máel Coluim III to [[Saint Margaret of Scotland]], a myth which had its origins in the medieval period.<ref>See, for instance, Steve Boardman, "Late Medieval Scotland and the Matter of Britain", in Edward J. Cowan and Richard J. Finlay (eds.), ''Scottish History: The Power of the Past'', (Edinburgh, 2002), pp. 65–71.</ref> With the development of modern historical techniques in the mid-19th century, responsibility for these developments appeared to lie more with David than his father. David assumed a principal place in the alleged destruction of the [[Kingdom of Alba|Celtic Kingdom of Scotland]], Andrew Lang, in 1900, wrote that "with Alexander [I], Celtic domination ends; with David, Norman and English dominance is established".<ref>Quoted in Oram, ''David'', p. 219, citing Lang, ''A History of Scotland'', vol. 1, pp. 102–109; Lang did not neglect the old myth about Margaret, writing of the Northumbrian refugees arriving in Scotland "where they became the sires of the sturdy Lowland race", Lang, ''A History of Scotland'', vol. 1, p. 91.</ref>

The ages of [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and [[Romanticism]] had elevated the role of races and "ethnic packages" into mainstream history, and in this context David was portrayed as hostile to the native Scots, and his reforms were seen in the light of natural, perhaps even justified, civilised Teutonic aggression towards the backward Celts.<ref>See Matthew H. Hammond, "Ethnicity and the Writing of Medieval Scottish history", pp. 1–27.; see also, Murray G. H. Pittock's work, ''Celtic Identity and the British Image'', (Manchester, 1999), and Oram, ''David'', pp. 219–220.</ref>

In the 20th century, several studies were devoted to Normanisation in 12th century Scotland, focusing upon and thereby emphasising the changes brought about by the reign of David I. Græme Ritchie's ''The Normans in Scotland'' (1954), [[Archie Duncan (historian)|Archie Duncan]]'s ''Scotland: The Making of the Kingdom'' (1974) and the many articles of [[G. W. S. Barrow]] all formed part of this historiographical trend.<ref>Græme Ritchie, ''The Normans in Scotland'', (Edinburgh, 1954); Duncan, ''Scotland: The Making of the Kingdom'', pp. 133–173; most of Barrow's most important essays have been collected in two volumes, ''Scotland and Its Neighbours In the Middle Ages'', (London, 1992) and ''The Kingdom of the Scots: Government, Church and Society from the eleventh century to the fourteenth century'', 2nd edn. (Edinburgh, 2003).</ref>

In the 1980s, Barrow sought a compromise between change and continuity, and argued that the reign of King David was, in fact, a "Balance of New and Old".<ref>Barrow, "The Balance of New and Old", ''passim''.</ref> Such a conclusion was a natural incorporation of an underlying current in Scottish historiography which, since [[William F. Skene]]'s monumental and revolutionary three-volume ''Celtic Scotland: A History of Ancient Alban'' (1876–1880), had been forced to acknowledge that "Celtic Scotland" was alive and healthy for a long time after the reign of David I.<ref>William Forbes Skene, ''Celtic Scotland: A History of Ancient Alban'', 3 vols. (Edinburgh, 1876–1880); see also, Edward J. Cowan, "The Invention of Celtic Scotland", pp. 1–23.</ref> Michael Lynch followed and built upon Barrow's compromise solution, arguing that as David's reign progressed, his kingship became more Celtic.<ref>Lynch, ''Scotland: A New History'', pp. 82–83.</ref> Despite its subtitle, in 2004 in the only full-volume study of David I's reign yet produced, ''David I: The King Who Made Scotland'', its author [[Richard Oram]] further builds upon Lynch's picture, stressing continuity while placing the changes of David's reign in their context.<ref>Oram, ''David I'', (Stroud, 2004).</ref>

== Davidian Revolution ==
{{main|Davidian Revolution}}
[[File:Dabíd mac Maíl Choluim Coinage.JPG|right|thumb|Silver penny of David I.]]

However, while there may be debate about the importance or extent of the [[historical change]] in David I's era, no historian doubts that it was taking place. The reason is what Barrow and Lynch both call the "Davidian Revolution".<ref>Barrow, "The Balance of New and Old", pp. 9–11; Lynch, ''Scotland: A New History'', p. 80.</ref> David's "revolution" is held to underpin the development of later medieval Scotland, whereby the changes he inaugurated grew into most of the central institutions of the later medieval kingdom.<ref>Barrow, "The Balance of New and Old", p. 13.</ref>

Since [[Robert Bartlett (historian)|Robert Bartlett]]'s pioneering work, ''The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950–1350'' (1993), reinforced by Moore's ''The First European Revolution, c. 970–1215'' (2000), it has become increasingly apparent that better understanding of David's "revolution" can be achieved by recognising the wider "European revolution" taking place during this period. The central idea is that from the late 10th century onwards the culture and institutions of the old [[Carolingian]] heartlands in northern [[France]] and western [[Germany]] were spreading to outlying areas, creating a more recognisable "[[Europe]]". Scotland was just one of many "outlying" areas.<ref>Bartlett, ''The Making of Europe'', pp. 24–59; Moore, ''The First European Revolution, c. 970–1215'', p. 30ff; see also Barrow, "The Balance of New and Old", ''passim'', esp. 9; this idea of "Europe" seems in practice to mean "Western Europe".</ref>

[[File:Burghs of Dabíd mac Maíl Choluim.JPG|thumb|left|Burghs established in Scotland before the accession of David's successor and grandson, [[Malcolm IV of Scotland|Máel Coluim IV]]; these were Scotland's first towns.{{image reference needed|date=December 2022}}]]

=== Government and feudalism ===
The widespread enfeoffment of foreign knights and the processes by which [[land ownership]] was converted from [[Custom (law)|customary]] [[Land tenure|tenure]]s into [[feudal]], or otherwise legally-defined relationships, would revolutionise the way the Kingdom of Scotland was governed, as did the dispersal and installation of royal agents in the new [[Motte-and-bailey|mottes]] that were proliferating throughout the realm to staff newly created sheriffdoms and judiciaries for the twin purposes of [[law enforcement organization|law enforcement]] and [[taxation]], bringing Scotland further into the "continental" model.<ref>Haidu, ''The Subject Medieval/Modern'', p. 181; Moore, ''The First European Revolution'', p. 57.</ref>

Scotland in this period experienced innovations in governmental practices and the importation of foreign, mostly [[French people|French]], [[knight]]s. It is to David's reign that the beginnings of [[feudalism]] are generally assigned. This is defined as "castle-building, the regular use of professional cavalry, the knight's fee" as well as "homage and fealty".<ref>Barrow, "Balance of New and Old", pp. 9–11.</ref> David established large-scale feudal lordships in the west of his Cumbrian principality for the leading members of the French military entourage who kept him in power. Additionally, many smaller-scale feudal lordships were created.<ref>"The Beginnings of Military Feudalism"; Oram, "David I and the Conquest of Moray", page 43, note 43; see also, L. Toorians, "Twelfth-century Flemish Settlement in Scotland", pp. 1–14.</ref>

Steps were taken during David's reign to make the government of that part of Scotland he administered more like the government of Anglo-Norman England. New [[sheriffdom]]s enabled the King to effectively administer [[royal demesne]] land. During his reign, royal sheriffs were established in the king's core personal territories; namely, in rough chronological order, at [[Roxburgh]], [[Scone, Scotland|Scone]], [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]], [[Stirling]] and [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]].<ref>McNeill & MacQueen, ''Atlas of Scottish History'' p. 193</ref> The [[Justiciar]]ship too was created in David's reign. Although this institution had Anglo-Norman origins, in Scotland north of the Forth at least, it represented some form of continuity with an older office.<ref>See Barrow, G. W. S., "The ''Judex''", pp. 57–67 and "The Justiciar", pp. 68–111.</ref>

=== Economy ===
The revenue of his English earldom and the proceeds of the silver mines at [[Alston, Cumbria|Alston]] allowed David to produce Scotland's first coinage. These altered the nature of trade and transformed his political image.<ref>Oram, ''David I: The King Who Made Scotland'', pp. 193, 195; Bartlett, ''The Making of Europe'', p. 287: "The minting of coins and the issue of written dispositions changed the political culture of the societies in which the new practices appeared".</ref>

David was a great town builder. As Prince of the Cumbrians, David founded the first two [[burghs]] of "Scotland", at [[Roxburgh]] and Berwick.<ref>Duncan, ''Scotland: The Making of the Kingdom'', p. 465.</ref> Burghs were settlements with defined boundaries and guaranteed trading rights, locations where the king could collect and sell the products of his ''cain'' and ''conveth'' (a payment made ''in lieu'' of providing the king [[hospitality]]).<ref>See G. W. S. Barrow, ''Kingship and Unity'', pp. 84–104; see also, Stringer, "The Emergence of a Nation-State", pp. 66–69.</ref> David founded around 15 burghs.<ref>Stringer, "The Emergence of a Nation-State", p. 67. Numbering is uncertain; Perth may date to the reign of Alexander I; Inverness is a case where the foundation may date later, but may date to the period of David I: see for instance the blanket statement that Inverness dates to David I's reign in Derek Hall, ''Burgess, Merchant and Priest'', compare Richard Oram, ''David'', p. 93, where it is acknowledged that this is merely a possibility, to A. A. M. Duncan, ''The Making of the Kingdom'', p. 480, who quotes a charter indicating that the burgh dates to the reign of William the Lion.</ref>

[[File:MelroseAbbey01.jpg|thumb|The ruins of [[Melrose Abbey]]. Founded in 1137, this [[Cistercians|Cistercian monastery]] became one of David's greatest legacies.]]

Perhaps nothing in David's reign compares in importance to burghs. While they could not, at first, have amounted to much more than the nucleus of an [[immigrant]] [[merchant]] class, nothing would do more to reshape the long-term economic and ethnic shape of Scotland than the burgh. These planned towns were or dominated by [[English people|English]] in culture and language; [[William of Newburgh]] wrote in the reign of [[William the Lion]], that "the towns and burghs of the Scottish realm are known to be inhabited by English";<ref>A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 256.</ref> as well as transforming the economy, the dominance of an English influence would in the long term undermine the position of the [[Middle Irish language]], giving birth to the idea of the [[Scottish Lowlands]].<ref>Stringer, "The Emergence of a Nation-State", 1100–1300", p. 67; Michael Lynch, ''Scotland: A New History'', pp. 64–66; Thomas Owen Clancy, "History of Gaelic", [http://www.bord-na-gaidhlig.org.uk/about-gaelic/history.html here] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070911232223/http://www.bord-na-gaidhlig.org.uk/about-gaelic/history.html |date=11 September 2007}}</ref>

=== Monastic patronage ===
David was one of medieval Scotland's greatest monastic patrons. In 1113, in perhaps David's first act as Prince of the Cumbrians, he founded [[Selkirk Abbey]] for the [[Tironensians]].<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 62; Duncan, ''Making of a Kingdom'', p. 145.</ref> David founded more than a dozen new monasteries in his reign, patronising various new monastic orders.<ref>Duncan, ''Scotland: The Making of a Kingdom'', pp. 145–150; Duncan, "The Foundation of St Andrews Cathedral Priory", pp. 25, 27–28; Fawcett and Oram, ''Melrose Abbey'', pp. 15–20.</ref>

Not only were such monasteries an expression of David's undoubted piety, they also functioned to transform Scottish society. Monasteries became centres of foreign influence and provided sources of literate men, able to serve the crown's growing administrative needs.<ref>Peter Yeoman, ''Medieval Scotland'', p. 15.</ref> These new monasteries, the [[Cistercian]] ones in particular, introduced new agricultural practices.<ref>Fawcett and Oram, ''Melrose Abbey'', p. 17.</ref> Cistercian labour, for instance, transformed southern Scotland into one of northern Europe's most important sources of sheep wool.<ref>See, for instance, Stringer,  ''The Reformed Church in Medieval Galloway and Cumbria'', pp. 9–11; Fawcett and Oram, ''Melrose Abbey'', p. 17; Duncan, ''The Making of a Kingdom'', p. 148.</ref>

== Family tree ==
{{chart top|David's relationship with the kings of Scotland and England<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 10</ref>}}
{{chart/start|align=center}}
{{tree chart |border=0| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Æthelred|Æthelred=[[Æthelred the Unready]]}} 
{{tree chart |border=0| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.|}} 
{{tree chart |border=0| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Edmund| |Edward| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Robert|Edward=[[Edward the Confessor]]|Edmund=[[Edmund Ironside]]|Robert=[[Robert I, Duke of Normandy]]}} 
{{tree chart |border=0| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.|}} 
{{tree chart |border=0| | | | | | |Duncan| |Agatha|y|Edward| | | | | | | | | | | | |William| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Adelaide|Edward=[[Edward the Exile]]|Agatha=[[Agatha (wife of Edward the Exile)|Agatha]]|Duncan=[[Duncan I of Scotland]]|William=[[William I of England]]|Adelaide=[[Adelaide of Normandy]]}} 
{{tree chart |border=0| | | | | | | |!| | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!|}} 
{{tree chart |border=0|Ingibiorg|y|~|~|Malcolm|~|~|y|Margaret| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Judith|y|Waltheof|Ingibiorg=[[Ingibiorg Finnsdottir]]|Malcolm=[[Malcolm III of Scotland]]|Margaret=[[Margaret of Wessex]]|Adelaide=[[Adelaide of Normandy]]|Judith=[[Judith of Lens]]|Waltheof=[[Waltheof of Northumbria]]}} 
{{tree chart |border=0| |,|-|^|-|.| | | |,|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|*|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | |!|}} 
{{tree chart |border=0|Duncan| |Donald| |Edward| |Edmund| |Ethelred| |Edgar| | |Edith|y|Henry| |Mary| | | | | |Alexander| |David|y|Maud|y|Simon| |Duncan=[[Duncan II of Scotland]]|Donald=Donald|Edward=Edward|Edmund=[[Edmund of Scotland|Edmund]]|Ethelred=[[Ethelred of Scotland|Ethelred]]|Edgar=[[Edgar of Scotland]]|Edith=[[Matilda of Scotland|Edith]]|Henry=[[Henry I of England]]|Mary=[[Mary of Scotland, Countess of Boulogne|Mary]]|Alexander=[[Alexander I of Scotland]]|David='''David I of Scotland'''|Maud=[[Maud of Huntingdon]]|Simon=[[Simon I de Senlis|Simon de Senlis]]}} 
{{tree chart |border=0| |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | | | | |!| | | |:|}} 
{{tree chart |border=0|William| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Adelin| |Maud| |Matilda|y|Stephen| |Malcolm| | | |Henry| | | |William=[[William fitz Duncan]]|Adelin=[[William Adelin]]|Maud=[[Empress Matilda]]|Matilda=[[Matilda I of Boulogne]]|Stephen=[[Stephen of England]]|Henry=[[Henry of Scotland|Henry]]|Malcolm=[[Máel Coluim mac Alaxandair|Malcolm]]}} 
{{tree chart |border=0| |:| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | |:| | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.|}} 
{{tree chart |border=0| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Henry| | | | | | | | | | | | | |Malcolm| |William| |David|MeicUilleim=''[[Meic Uilleim]]''|Henry=[[Henry II of England]]|Malcolm=[[Malcolm IV of Scotland]]|William=[[William I of Scotland]]|David=[[David, Earl of Huntingdon|David]]}} 
{{tree chart |border=0| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |:| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |:| | | |:|}} 
{{chart/end}}
{{chart bottom}}

== Fictional portrayals ==
* ''David the Prince'' (1980) by [[Nigel Tranter]]. The story of Queen Margaret's sons Alexander I and David I.

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

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* Blanchard, Ian; "Lothian and Beyond: The Economy of the "English Empire" of David I", in Richard Britnell and John Hatcher (eds.), ''Progress and Problems in Medieval England: Essays in Honour of Edward Miller'', (Cambridge, 1996).
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* [[Broun, Dauvit]]; "Recovering the Full Text of Version A of the Foundation Legend", in Simon Taylor (ed.), ''Kings, Clerics and Chronicles in Scotland, 500–1297'', (Dublin, 2000), pp. 108–114.
* Broun, Dauvit; "The Welsh Identity of the Kingdom of Strathclyde", in ''The Innes Review'', Vol. 55, no. 2 (Autumn, 2004), pp. 111–180
* Chibnall, Marjory; ed. ''Anglo-Norman Studies: Proceedings of the Battle Conference 1991'', The Boydell Press, 1992.
* Clancy, Thomas Owen; "Annat and the Origins of the Parish", in the ''Innes Review'', vol. 46, no. 2 (1995), pp. 91–115.
* Clancy, Thomas Owen; "A Gaelic Polemic Quatrain from the Reign of Alexander I, ca. 1113", in ''Scottish Gaelic Studies'', vol.20 (2000), pp. 88–96.
* Clancy, M. T.; ''England and its Rulers'', 2nd Ed., (Malden, MA, 1998).
* Cowan, Ian B.; "Development of the Parochial System", in the ''Scottish Historical Review'', 40 (1961), pp. 43–55.
* Cowan, Edward J.; "The Invention of Celtic Scotland", in Edward J. Cowan and R. Andrew McDonald (eds.), ''Alba: Celtic Scotland in the Middle Ages'', (East Lothian, 2000), pp. 1–23.
* Dalton, Paul; "Scottish Influence on Durham, 1066–1214", in David Rollason, Margaret Harvey and [[Michael Prestwich]] (eds.), ''Anglo-Norman Durham, 1093–1193'', pp. 339–352.
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* Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí; ''Early Medieval Ireland: 400–1200'', (Harlow, 1995).
* O'Meara, John J. (ed.); ''Gerald of Wales: The History and Topography of Ireland'', (London, 1951).
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* Oram, Richard; "David I and the Conquest of Moray", in ''Northern Scotland'', vol. 19 (1999), pp. 1–19.
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* Ritchie, Græme; ''The Normans in Scotland'', (Edinburgh, 1954).
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=== Additional sources ===
* [[Bernard Burke]], Ashworth P. Burke (London, 1934). A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Peerage and Baronetage, the Privy Council, Knightage, and Companionage https://books.google.com/books?id=vpHySDcAmU8C&hl=en&gbpv=0&kptab=overview#pli=1
* Frederick Lewis Weis, Walter Lee Sheppard, William Ryland Beall, Kaleen E. Beall (2004). Ancestral Roots of Certain American Colonists who Came to America Before 1700: Lineages from Alfred the Great, Charlemagne, Malcolm of Scotland, Robert the Strong, and Other Historical Individuals. {{ISBN|0806317523}}, {{ISBN|9780806317526}} https://books.google.ru/books/about/Ancestral_Roots_of_Certain_American_Colo.html?id=3F9nG8aFJ7MC&redir_esc=y

== External links ==
* [http://db.poms.ac.uk/record/person/130 POMS entry for David I].
* [https://www.royal.uk/david-i-r-1124-1153 David I] at the official website of the [[British monarchy]].
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/david_i.shtml David I] at BBC History.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070911232223/http://www.bord-na-gaidhlig.org.uk/about-gaelic/history.html Thomas Owen Clancy, "History of Gaelic"].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081006164912/http://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/SOURCES/hexham.htm Richard of Hexham's account of the 1138 Scottish invasion of England].

{{s-start}}
{{S-hou|[[House of Dunkeld]]||c. 1084|24 May|1153|name=David I of Scotland}}
{{s-reg}}
{{succession box |
 before= [[Alexander I of Scotland|Alexander I]]|
 title=[[King of Alba]] |
 years=1124–1153 |
 after= [[Malcolm IV]]
}}
{{s-bef|rows=1|before=[[Simon I de Senlis]]}}
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{{David I figures}}
{{David I}}
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[[Category:David I of Scotland| ]]
[[Category:Medieval Gaels from Scotland]]
[[Category:Medieval Scottish saints]]
[[Category:1080s births]]
[[Category:1153 deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:Burials at Dunfermline Abbey]]
[[Category:12th-century Scottish monarchs]]
[[Category:People of The Anarchy]]
[[Category:Earls of Huntingdon (1065 creation)]]
[[Category:Military saints]]
[[Category:Christian monarchs]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic royal saints]]
[[Category:Scottish Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:1084 births]]
[[Category:11th-century Christian saints]]
[[Category:12th-century Christian saints]]
[[Category:Scottish royal saints]]

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