iShayina

IShayina
中华人民共和国
Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó

Inkondlo yesizwe: March of the Volunteers 《义勇军进行曲》 (Pinyin: "Yìyǒngjūn Jìnxíngqǔ")
Isiqongo	Beijing
Idolobha elikhulu	Shanghai
Ulimi	IsiShayina
Ubungako bendawo	9,640,821 km²
Inani labantu  Lonke:  Ukuminyana:	1,339,724,852(2008) 363.3 ab./km²

IShayina (ngokomthetho: IRiphabhuliki yaBantu baseShayina, ngesiNgisi: People's Republic of China, ngokufushane: i-PRC, ngesiShayina: 中华人民共和国, ngesiPinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó) yilizwe empumalanga Eshiya. IKhelane neRashiya neNyakatho Khoriya ngasenyakatho-mpumalanga, iMongoliya ngasenyakatho, iKazakhistani, iThajikhistani neKhirigizistani ngasenyakatho-ntshonalanga, i-Afganistani, iPhakistani, iNdiya, iNephali neBhutani ngasentshonalanga, iMyanmar, iLaos, ne Viyetnamu ngasenzansi. IShayina iduze neNingizimu Khoriya, iJaphani nePhillipines. Ngasempumalanga kunelwandle eliPhuzi (Yellow Sea) nelwandle laseMpumalanga Shayina kuphinde kube nelwande laseNingizimu Shayinga ngazenzansi.

Umbuso we-PRC uphikisana neRiphabuliki yaseShayina mayelana ukubusa kweShayina nesiqhingi saseTaiwan lapho singabusi khona. Awuvumi ukuthu amanye amazwe abanebudlelwane neyo umabanga vumelani nayo ukuthi kuyiyona umbuso wangempela waseTaiwan. Futhi i-PRC iphikisana neVietnam, iBrunei, iPhilippines neMalaysia mayelana ukubusa kweLwande leNingizimu Shayina. Futhi i-PRC iphikisana neNdiya mayelana ukubusa kwezindawo ezithile eKashmir. Ixazulule ukuphikasana ngaphakathi kwayo nePhakistani mayelana ukubusa kwezindawo eziseKashmir lapho khona iPhakistani iphikisana neNdiya. Phezu kwalokho iphikisana neJapani mayelana ukubusa kweziqhingi zaseSenkaku.

Umlando waseShayina usukela eminyakeni eyi-2000 ngaphambu kokuzala kweMvana esikhathini esaziwa nge-Paleolithic emchengezini womfula oliPhuzi. Ngo-221 ngaphambu kokuzala kweMvana, amazwe ebekhona kuleyondawo wahlanganiswa uQin Shi Huang. IShayina yabuswa amaQin, amaHan, amaTang, amaYuan, amaMing namaQing. Ngelikhulu leminyaka ayisishumi neshishiyagalolunye, amazwe aseYuropu aqale ukuthatha umhlaba weShayina.

Ngo-1911, iKuomintang imenule iNkosi uPuyi (ngesiShayina bekaziwa njengeNdodana yeZulu) yasungula iRiphabhuliki yaseShayina. Ngasemuva kweMpi Enkulu yomMhlaba Wonke yokuQala, iNhlangano yobuKhomunisti yaseShayina (i-CCP) yahlokoza imphi yezakhamuzi. Kulesosikhathi iJapani yahlesela, yathatha isifunzwe seShayina saseManchuria. IKuomintang neCCP bamisa ukulwa isikhashane kodwa babuyela khona ekuphethweni kweMpi yoMhlaba Wonke yesiBili. Amakhomunisti waxosha iKuomintang eShayina, iKuomintang yabalekela eTaiwan. Nomabangasalwi, impi engaphakathi kwabo ayikakapheli. Ngo-1990, uMbuso oHlangeneyo nePhotugali zabuyisa iHong Kong neMacau kuShayina.

Umbuso kaMao Zedong, uNobala oMkhulu we-CCP eyalandela ukuxoshwa kwe-Riphabuliki yaseShayina udale ukuhlupheka obukhulu nombuso wempoqo nencindezelo ulubuhlungu ukuthi abantu abayizigidi amashumi amahlanu bashona. Ngo-1961, wakhothama uNobala oMkhulu, kwangena uDeng Xiaoping ezingeni lokuphatha waguqulo isimo somnotho nendlela yokubusa ngangokuthi ngaphansi kwabalandeli bake, iShayina yaba yilizwe elinomnotho oqhataniswa neMelika ngobukhulu bayo . IShayina yanamhlanje idayisa impahla nawonke amazwe asemhlabeni ukundlula amazwe onke ngemali. Namhlanje iShayina inamandla anagangokuthi ibizwe ngelizwe elimandla ukudlula wonke amazwe emhlabeni wonke ngaphandle kweMelika. Inhlokodoloba iseBeijing, idolobha elikhulu liseShanghai, futhi amanye amadolobha abalulekile aseShenzhen, eChongqing, naseTianjing.

I-Homo erectus (okhokho bobuntu) yokuqala eyaziwa ikhona eShayina ngu-Peking Man. Ngokuhlola i-Carbon-12 engasemathambeni ayo, ochwepheshe basola ukuthi ingabaneminyaka engezigidi eziyi-2.5. I-Homo sapiens ingake yabakhona eShayina kusukela iminyika engangezi-680,000 kuyela 780,000. Abachwephesi bomlando basola ukuthi izithombe zase-Jiahu zingaba izibonelo zakuqala zokubhala eShayina - kusolwa ukuthi ziqanjwe ngezi-7,000, ngasemuva kokuzalwa kweMvana (BC).

Inkosi yobuKhosi bamaQin nomSunguli weShayina, uQin Shi Huang

Inkosi yamaMongoli owasungula umbuso omkhulu ukundlula imibuso yonke emlandweni womhlaba wonke, uGenghis Khan

Inkosi yakuqala yobuKhosi bamaQing, ubukhosi bobugcina baseShayina, uChangde

Ngezincwadi zomlando zaseShayina, kuthiwa ubukhosa lamaXia buyilona lobuqala baseShayina. Kodwa ubufakazi balokho aluqinanga futhi abachwephese bezomlando bayakuphikisa. Kunokuvumelana okukhulayo kokuthi ubukhosi bamaShang kuyilona langempela lokuqala laseShayina. Kwaziwa ukuthi amaShang avele ngeminyakakhulu eyi-11 ngasemuva kokuzala kweMvana (BC). Ubukhosi bamaShang buchithwe ngamaZhou ewabusa ngeminyakakhulu eyi-11 kuyela iminyakakhulu eyi-5 BC. Inkosi yamaZhou yayibizwa ngeNdodana yeZulu, isihloko amakhosi eShayina alandelayo abizwa ngaso. Umbuso wamaZhou wabhidlika, kwasala izizwe eziyisikhombisa ezilwayo kusukela iminyakakhulu eyi-5 kuya iminyakakhulu eyi-3 BC.

Ubukhosi bamaQin bunqobe Izizwe Eziyisikhombisa Ezilwayo labangubukhosi bobuqala besikhathi esaziwa ngesiNgisi nge-Imperial China (isikhathi seNkosi yamaKhosi). Inkosi uQin Shi Huang (noma, uQin Zheng) wagcotshwa njengeNkosi yamaKhosi yaseShayina yokuqala ngezi-221 BC. Umbuso kaQin Shi Huang ulethe imali, ukulinganisa oluqavile nokuhlanganisa amaphawu okubhala isiShayina. Umbuso wakhe wachithwa amaHan ewakhulisa umhlaba weShayina futhi waqala umgwaqo wokudayisa nokuhamba olubizwa yi-Silk Road. Ubukhosi bamaHan baphela kwasuka isikhathi semiBuso eyiNtathu: amaJin, nobukhosi baseNyakatho nobukhosi baseNingizimu.

AmaSui abuyise ubukhosi bamaHan kodwa bawa ngenxa yezimpi eKhoriya. Kwavela ubukhosi bamaTang nobukhosi bamaSong. Lemikhosi yayidayisana nabantu abasezindaweni ezikude njengase-Mesapotamia naseNtshonalanga Afrika. Ubukhosi bamaSong bulethe imali yephephe, amabutho agcwele wosemanzini, inkolelo ye-Confucianism nokukhula kwenanini labantu ukundlula izigidi eziyi-100. AmaTang ona oxhase inkolelo yaka-Bhuda (ngesiNgisi: i-Buddhism).

Kusekela u-1205 ngaphambu kokuzala kweMvana (AD), amaMongoli ngaphansi kaGengis Khana anqobe iShayina. AmaMongoli aqhubeka ukunqoba iShayinga ngaphansi kaKublai Khan owaqeda ubukhosi bamaSong. AmaMongoli asungule ubukhosi bamaYuan. Inani labantu ngasemuva kokuza kwamaMongoli beluzigidi eziyi-120. Kwabhubha abantu angangangokuthi kusale inani labantu eliyizigidi eziyi-60. UZhu Yuanzhang unqobe amaYuan, wasungula ubukhosi bamaMing. Esikhathini samaMing kwabakhona ukuhamba ngelwandle olungangokuthi amaShayina afike eMpumalanga Afrika. Ngenxa yezimpi namaJaphani nemizabalazo yakaLi Zicheng, ubukhosi bamaMing lwabuthakathaka. Lokho kwenze ukuthi kubelula ukuthi amaManchu anqobe amaMing. AmaManchu asungule ubukhosi bamaQing kusukela izi-1644 AD.

Ngeminyakakhulu eyi-19, iShayina yabanezimipi neNgilandi neFulansi ngenxa yokuthi iShayina beyingafuni ukuthi abantu bayo babhubhe ngenxa yesidagamiswa i-opium ebeyithengiswa yiNgilandi futhi yaqeda i-opium eyathengiswa iNkampani yamaNgisi yaseMpumalanga Ndiya. INgilandi nabangani bayo bahlasela iShayina. Ngoba iNgilandi beyinamandla amakhulu ukundlula iShayina yaphoqa umbuso waseShayina ukuvumela ukudayiswa kwe-opium yamaNgisi ezweni layo nokubanikeza inxenye yomhlaba wayo. Lokhu kuphathise amaShayina amahloni amakhulu futhi adala izinkinga ezempilo ezweni.

Umsunguli weRiphabuliki yaseShayina nomHoli weKuomintang, uSun Yat Sen

Umsunguli weRiphabuliki yaBantu baseShayina noNobhala oMkhulu weNhlangano yobuKhomunisti yaseShayina, uMao Zedong

uXuantong, INdodana yeZulu, iNkosi yamaKhosi yaseShayina yokugcina

Ngenxayezimpi, umzabalazo, indlala nokugula, kwabakhona umzabalazo omkhulu waseXinhai uphoqe iNdodana yeZulu, iNkosi yamaKhosi uXuantong (owaziwa ngokujwaleya ngo-Puyi) ukuthi asuke esihlalweni sobukhosi. U-Sun Yat Sen uqede umbuso wobukhosi waqala iRiphabhuliki yaseShayina ngezi-1912 ngaphansi kwamaNationalist (emelwe iqembu leKuomintang). Ngaphansi kaChiang Kai Shek, iKuomintang ikwaze ukuhlanganisa iShayina nokuqinisa amandla wehulumeni. Ngo-1921 iNhlangano yobuKhomunisti yaseRashiya incede uMao Zedong nabanye ukusungula iNhlangano yobuKhomunisti yaseShayina. Amakhomunisti namaNationalist balwa kwaba nempi yezakhamuzi.

Bame isikhashane ukulwa ngoba-iJaphani yahlasela iShayina ngo-1936. IJaphani yabulala abantu abaningi eShayina yathatha umhlaba waseManchuria. IMelika yashaya amadolobha aseJaphani ngebhomu yenyukliya ukuphoqa iJaphani ukuthi iyekele ukulwa nezinye izizwe. Amakhomunisti namaNationalist waqhubeka ukulwa. Amakhomunisti waphumelela waxosha amaNationalist esiqhingini saseTaiwan. U-Mao Zedong wamemeza ukuqala kweRiphabuliki yamaBantu baseShayina (i-PRC).

Ngaphansi kwakhe kwaba nohlelo le-Great Leap Forward neCultural Revolution. Kwabanadlala nokulwa okukhulu ezweni kangangokuthi kushone izigidi zabantu. Ngezi-1971, iShayina yangena eZizweni Ezihlangene. UMao Zedong wakhothama ngezi-1976. UDeng Xiaoping wabamba izintambo zokubusa eShayina. Usebenzisane naboJiang Zemin nabanye ukuguqula indlela isizwe besibuswa ngayo ukuvumela inkululeko emnothweni. Lokhu kwadala umzabalazo omkhulu waseTiananmen lapho khona abantu bebafuna intandoyeningi. I-CCP beyingakufuni lokho, yacima lomzabalazo. Noma kunjalo, i-CCP yaqhubeka nohlela lokuguqula izwe.

Ngaphansi kwaka Deng Xiaoping, Jiang Zemin, Hu Jintao nabanye, iShayina yakhula ngenani labantu nangomnotho ngendlela eyisimangaliso. IShayina yabamba ama-Olympics ngezi-2008. IShayina yosondela ukulingana neMelika ngobukhulu bomnotho. Ngezi-2012 kungene uXi Jinping esikhundleni sokubusa. Ngezi-2019, kwabakhona igciwane leCorona elivele edolobheni laseWuhan, eShayina eladala isikhathi sokugula seCOVID-19. Abantu abaningi ngaphesheya bashona kowdwa iShayina yivimba ugcwala kwaleligciwane ezweni.

IPhanda eNkulu, isilwane sikazwelonke saseShayina

IPhanda eBomvu (ayihlobananga nePhanda eNkulu)

Ubungakho bomhlaba weShayina bundlula amakhilomitha ayizikwele eziyizigidi eziyisishiyagalolunye namakhulu ayisithupha (9 600 000 km²). Lokho kwenza iShayina ukuthi ibeyisizwe olwezithathu ngobukhulu emhlabeni ngobungakho bomhlaba. Icishe ilingane neZifundanzwe Ezihlangene zaseMelika ngobungakho bendawo. Ngasentshonalanga nasenyakatho-ntshonalanga kunegwadule laseGobhi nelaseTaklamakan. Ngaseningizimu-ntshonalanga nangasentshonalanga kunezintaba zaseHimalaya, zaseKarakoram, zaseTian Shan nasePamir. Kunemifula emikhulu njengeChiangjiang (iYangtze), iHuanghe (eliPhuzi), Zhujiang (iPheli, i-Pearl) neHeilongjiang. Amadolobha amakhulu njengeChongqing, iShenzhen, neGuangzhou akhiwe emncengezini yemifula.

IShayina inezilwane nemifino ehlukahlukene eziningi ukuthi ibizwa ngelizwe eli-Megadiverse. Lokho kusho ukuthi kutholakala indalo engatholakali kwamanye amazwe njengeNgwe enemiGqa, iPhanda eNkulu, iPhanda eBomvu, iNgwe yeQhwa neNgwe yaseAmur, impunzi yakaSika, isilwane esihlobene nemfene ekuthiwa yiGibhoni. IShayina inamabhayomu (i-biome, indawo enomumo womhlaba, isimo sezulu nobuningi bendalo oluthile) njengezintaba, ihlathi lemvula (i-rainforest), ihlathi leqhwa (i-taiga), amagwadule, umhlaba ofudumele wotshani nomhlaba obandayo wotshani (i-steppe). IShayina inezinkinga ezibhubhisa umhlaba wayo njengokuwoma, ukuguqulwa kwesimo sezulu ngenxa yokhukhiqizwa kwentuthu emafektrini, nokugawulwa kwemithi esehlathini ukwenza indawo elungele ukuhlala kwabantu, ukulima imifino nokufuya. Ukubhekana nalezinkinga nokubambisana nezinye izizwe, iShayina iyilunga Yemvumelano yokuGuqulwa kweSimo seZulu yaseParis futhi inemihlelo nemingubomgomo njengokutshala imithi nokuphungula izimotho emgwaqeni.

Xi Jinping, uMongameli waseShayina

Li Qiang, uNdunankulu waseShayina

Uhulumeni ungaphansi kweNhlangano yobuKhomunisti yaseShayina (i-CCP). Inkolelo yeCCP isekelwa ubuKhomunisti kakhulukazi olembulwe nguKarl Marx, uVladimir Lenini noMao Zedong - namhlanje kuthiwa yiSoshalizimu enobuShayina ngaphakathi. Inhloko yezwe nehulumeni uXin Jinping ohleli ezikhundleni ezintathu: uMongameli waseShayina, uNobhala oMkhulu we-CCP nesiHlalo seKhomithi ePhakeme yamaButho. Isishayamathetho sikaZwelonke saBantu (i-NPC) sinamandla okushaya umthetho, okukhetha ongqongqoshe nokuthulela ukuqonda kwomthetho. Ngoba i-NPC ihlangana usonto olodwa ngenyaka, ikhetha amalunga ambalwa ayo ukuthi abengama lunga eKhomithi Emile ye-NPC ukuthi ishaye umthetho ngaphakati kwemihlangano yayo emkhulu. uMkhandlu woMbuso uyinhloko yegatsha lokuphatha - uSihlalo wayo nguNdunankulu uLi Qiang. iNkantolo ePhakemeyo yaBantu iyinkantolo yokugcina lapho khona amacala angadlulswa khona.

Ngokwe-Freedom in the World Index (ucwaningo olukhiqizwa ngenyaka oluqhathanisa izizwe ngokukhululeka namandla wentandoyeningi) kuthiwa iShayina ibuswa ngemphoqo nencindezelo. IShayina inomthethosisekelo ovikela amalungelo futhi oluqinisekisa ukuthi kuno khetho. Kodwa abachwephese bathi akuvumelekanga ukuthi amanye amaqembu aphumelele noma ukuthi athole amavoti amaningi ngendlela engahlula i-CCP. Umthethosikelelo ubeka i-CCP njengeqembu elibalulekile futhi ekuyilona elidonsa phambili kuyonke imikhakha yokuphatha ezweni. EShayina kunohlelo lwamakhompyutha loku lawula i-inthanethi ukufumana abashokobezi nokuvimba ukugxekwa kombuso (i-Great Firewall of China). EShayina kuyakhonakala ukuthi abantu baboshwe nomabashabalaliswe ngumbuso bengenacala eliphambili kwenkantolo yomthetho ngenxa yokuthi umbuso awuthandi izinto ebazishoyo njengoku phikisana nokugxeka umbuso. EShayina kwakukhona unqubomgomo woku phoqa abantu ukuthi babe nengane eyodwa ukumincisa inani labantu. Kodwa lokhu kugcekeze phansi amalungelo abantu mayelana inzalo nemizimba yabo kakhulukazi abesifazane. Futhi kuthiwa iShayina ibhubhisa amaUigyur, uhlanga lwabantu esifundazwe saseXinjiang oluhlobene namaTurk asesiKhungweni sase-Eshiya.

iButho leNkululeko laBantu (i-PLA) inamandla okuvikela izwe kaseShayina nombuso we-CCP eShayina. INama gatsha amathathu: Amabutho aseLwandle, Amabutho aseMoyeni, Amabutho amaRokhethi namaButho aseMhlabeni. I-PLA ingaphansi kweKhomithi ePhakeme Yezokuvikela ye-CCP. Inamasotsha andlula izigi ezimbili, uchitha izigidigi ezingamakhulu amabili namashumi amabili, emikhumbi eyindlula amakhulu amabili futhi inama-bhomu ayinyukliya - lokhu kuyenza ukuthi ibengumbutho onamandla amakhulu emhlabeni.

iShayina iyilunga eligcwele loMkhandlu yezokuPhepha yeziZwe eziHlangeneyo - kunamalunga amahlanu kuphela agcwele kulomkhandlu futhi avumelekile ukuvimba izingqumo zomkhandlu. Kunezizwe ezingavumi i-PRC futhi kunezizwe ezivuma i-PRC kodwa zingavumi ubukhulu bomhlaba nolwandle bayo. Amazwe amaningi eYuropu naseNyakatho Melika njengeziFundazwe eziHlangeneyo phecelezi izizwe ezingamalunga weNhlangano Yemvumelano yeNyakatho Atlantic awayithembi futhi aphikisana nayo njalo, bayigxeka ngokutshontsha incebo yobuchwepeshi nokuxhasa abaholi abakhohlakele abacindezela abantu babo emazweni amanye. Futhi iphikisana nezivunani zeMelika e-Eshiya njengeJaphani ne iNingizimu Khoriya.

IShayina izama ukuqamba ukusebenzisana nokushicisela ubunye emazweni angakafiki ezingeni eluphezulu lokuthuthuka. Lokhu ikwenza ngobubolekisa nokutshala imali ezizweni ezimpofu e-Afrika nase-Eshiya ngesibonelo nge-Belt and Road Initiative. Lohlelo luhlelwe ukuthi kukhiwe ingqalasizinda njengemigwaqo, imitheku, nezikhumulo zezindiza. Futhu iShayina iyilunga le-Group of 77, izizwe ezingamashumi ayisikhombisa nesikhombisa asebenzisana mayelana izinkinga ezibhekane nentuthuko yezizwe ezimpofu futhi ezingakafiki ezingeni eliphezulu lokuthuthuka. IShayina iyilunga le-BRICS, inhlangano yeShayina, iNingizimu Afrika, iNdiya, iRashiya neBrazili nezinye izizwe elizama ukwakha insika elihlukile ehlelweni lezombusazwe emhlabeni.

Umuzi we-Luijiazui eShanghai, isikhungo sazemali eShayina

Umgwaqo eBeijing lapho kuhleli amabhulungelo amakhulu weShayina

Umkhiqizo yomnotho wonyakawonke ungangamaDola aseMelika (US$) ayizigidgidintathu eziyi-17.9 (noma ama-US$ ayizigidigidintathu ezi-35.5, ngokuqhathanisa amandla emali phecelezi i-PPP). Ngenxa yokuthi inenani labantu elindlula isigidigidi, umkhiqizo womnotho ma uhlukaniswa ngabantu, ingama-US$ ayizinkulungwane eziyi-13 (noma ama-US$ ayizinkulungwane 35, nge-PPP). Lokho kusho ukuthi iShayina isezingeni lesibili noma elingaphakathi lwentuthuko. Iminyaka eminingi amabhizinisi angaphesheya bewatshala imali eningi emnothweni. Umbuso wenze ukuthi kubelula ukuthi amabhizinisi asebenze eShayina nokuthi izakhamuzi zisungule amabhizinisi khona.

Noma kunjalo, umnotho waseShayina ukhule ngokushesha olungaze lwayenzeka emlandweni womhlaba wonke. Izigidi zabantu bayo zakhishwa ebumpofini. IShayina idayisa impahla nezizwe zonke zasemhlabeni ngangokuthi ibeyindawo edlula zonke ekuthengwa impahla kuyo. Futhi intengo ehlangene yempahla yonke eyidayiswa yilelizwe indlula intengo ehlangene yempahla ethengwa yilelizwe kangangokuthi ibenensalela endlula amazwe onke ngobuningi. IShayina ikhanda izimoto, izingubo, amathuluzi asetshenziswa nangasendlini, nama-electronics, imikhumbi, nemishini yokuqamba ugesi engakhiqizi i-Carbon. Umhlaba weShayina ukhiqiza amalahle, amafutha, imfuyo, nentshalo.

Ngenxa yokusebenzisa ukuboleka, ukwakha ingqalasizinda nokuxhasa amabhizinisi, isikweledi sezwe singange 77% yomkhiqizo wonke onhlangene wenyakalinye. Ngenxa ye-COVID-19, ukukhula kwomnotho kunciphisekile. Lokho kusho ukuthi kunzima ukuthi abasha bathole umsebenzi. Futhi, ngoba abathuthukisi bezindlu bebakha izindlu ngokuboleka obukhulu kakhulu, izindlu ezisemadolobheni asezingeni lokuqala ngobukhuli zibhiza kakhulu ngangokuthi iningi labantu elisemadolobheni alikwazi ukuthenga izindlu ngaphandle koncedo lwemindeni futhi lokhu kwenza ukuthi abathuthikisi bangabi nayo imali elingene ukubiyisa ikuboleka kwabo ngokwesibonelo i-Evergrande.

iGrafu elinganisa inani abantu ngobulili (1 Lwezi 2020)

iGrafu eveza ukukhula kwenani labantu

IShayina inenani labantu abayizigidigidi eziyi-1.5 ngobuningi. Ngoba kusukela u-1979 ukufika ku-2015, umbuso wayenza ukuthi kubenzima ukuthi abantu babe nezingane ezindlula oyedwa. Lokho kusho ukuthi owesifazane uvame ukuba nabantwana abayi-1.16 (kodwa abachwephese abangaphesheya kweShayina ebezibalo bakholwa ukuthi isibalo sezingane ezizalwayo ngowesifazane sincane ukundlula lokhu).