- (b) For the discrepancy by levels, pensioners have been dropped from the tax data, so the comparison refers exclusively to active population. In any case, during the first years 48The limit of this obligation was 300,000 pesetas in 1982 and 900,000 pesetas in 1990. It is noteworthy that these thresholds did not coincide with the non-taxable minimum, which did not exist as such until 1988, and was 648,000 pesetas in 1990. An additional problem arises in 1990, when imputed incomes from the owner’s house were not to be considered for this limit, but cannot be distinguished in the IEF data.
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- 3. Types of incomes: the fiscal database would allow us to further distinguish among selfemployment regarding the type of tax base estimation procedure (namely accountancybased or presumptive), but this is not possible in the HBSs; as well as the separation of movable and fixed capital incomes.49 4. We do not have information on pensions received in 1982 in the survey data. Therefore... (a) For the aggregate discrepancy, I add pensions to the denominator, with information from Ministerio de Trabajo (1991) (first, I have subtracted 22% as an approximation of the part corresponding to households under the income threshold, from Bandr es, 1993). Without doing this, the labour and total ratios would be over-estimated (at 86% and 63% respectively).
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- 49In 1990 capital incomes have some disaggregation in the HBS. It is, however, not fully coincident with the fiscal definition, because mortgages paid cannot be distinguished and deducted from imputed rents from owner-occupied housing.
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- 5. Negative values in self-employment and capital incomes in the 1982 tax data have been changed to 0 before the comparison, to avoid potential bias given that there are no negative values in the HBS observations. 6. In order to obtain averages for the filing population, the HBS sample has been re-weighted to match the characteristics of the tax data sample, with respect to region, marital status and labour market status. 7. The averages are then calculated over all observations in each income-region category. This means that partial non-reporting of certain incomes is subsumed with their under-reporting. The alternative procedure, using only the observations with each kind of income, would entail assuming that partial non-reporting is non-existent.
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- The results of these calculations, by deciles, are shown in figure 8. They display something like a U shape for self-employment, and also for capital incomes in 1990. The total tax base is not shown to be significantly under-reported for any income level in 1990 (presumably a result of the previously mentioned under-adjustment in the HBS).
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- Therefore, compliance in movable capital would be over-estimated and the opposite effect would be true for fixed capital. after the introduction of the tax there was certain discussion as to whether public benefits should be included in the base, which was finally set at the supreme national court: unemployment and disability pensions were excluded in 1983 and 1986 respectively, while regular old age pensions were subject to tax. Recall, however, that these revenues were paid by the state and withheld at source, so fraud in them is not expected.
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Zucman, G. (2013). The Missing Wealth of Nations: Are Europe and the US net Debtors or net Creditors? The Quarterly journal of economics 128(3), 1321–1364. Appendices A Homogenization of databases before discrepancy analysis In this methodological appendix I explain the adjustments undertaken to make the survey and the tax data comparable.