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on Environmental Economics |
| By: | Jimena Rico (Banco de Mexico); Stephanie Panlasigui (Duke University); Colby J. Loucks (WWF – USA); Jennifer Swenson (Duke University); Alexander Pfaff (Duke University) |
| Abstract: | Economic activities (agriculture, logging, mining) drive tropical forest loss, so balancing development and conservation involves tradeoffs – as well as synergies. Conservation policies, such as protected areas (PAs), may save more forest when they include some development rights (Pfaff et al. 2014). There is less evidence about when development policies, such as logging concessions, include some conservation restrictions. The right to log creates an incentive for private firms to defend their forest assets, although firms could raise or reduce forest loss depending upon their capacities to defend, their motivations to log and public oversight. Reduced loss may be rewarded through voluntary certification or third-party oversight of logging practices, whose impact we hypothesize depends upon firms’ logging motivations and their capacities to restrict loss. To shed empirical light, we examine forest impacts from rights and restrictions within the Peruvian Amazon during 2000-2013, removing biases using location and year effects. Compared to control forests outside of concessions and PAs, we find PAs reduce tree-cover loss − while those PAs that include development rights save more forest than strict PAs, for each region. Logging concessions reduce forest loss in Madre de Dios, yet they increase loss in Ucayali. Certification has an impact – 1% reduction in 2000-2013 forest loss − only in Madre de Dios, consistent with higher certification impacts if private firms choose to restrict loss. |
| Keywords: | certification, FSC, deforestation, logging concessions, Peru |
| JEL: | Q23 Q56 Q24 O13 |
| Date: | 2017–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fae:wpaper:2017.22&r=env |
| By: | Elias Soukiazis (CeBER and Faculty of Economics of the University of Coimbra); Sara Proença (CERNAS/ESAC Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra); Pedro André Cerqueira (CeBER and Faculty of Economics of the University of Coimbra) |
| Abstract: | The relationship between renewable energy sources and economic growth has attracted the interest of researchers in recent years. However, the analysis has focused mostly on measuring the impact of renewable energy consumption on economic performance (such as economic growth) that does not reflect the quality of standards of living. We employ a different approach measuring the impact of renewable energy consumption on the Human Development Index (HDI) that considers these qualitative characteristics associated with better health and educational standards along with income performance. Additionally, we develop a simultaneous equation system approach that describes the interrelations between economic variables, renewable energy and pollution emissions with feedback effect tendencies. We provide robust evidence using panel data for a set of 28 OECD countries over the period 2004-2015. The system of equations is estimated by 3sls considering a static and dynamic specification of the model. It is shown that renewable energy consumption along with human and physical capital are important factors for explaining the sustainable development level of the countries considered. Renewable energy consumption is mostly determined by higher levels of human capital, the R&D spending and the stage of countries’ development. Factors like the stage of development, total energy consumption, renewable energy consumption and standard levels of education are important elements for explaining environmental pollution (measured by CO2 emissions per capita). It is also established a non-linear relationship between the countries` stage of development and carbon emissions. |
| Keywords: | Renewable energy, human development index, simultaneous equation system, panel data. |
| JEL: | O13 Q2 C33 |
| Date: | 2017–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:gmf:papers:2017-10&r=env |
| By: | Ana Maria Montoya Gómez; Markus Zimmer |
| Abstract: | We study the effect of climate policy on companies’ greenhouse gas emissions using emissions data for the headquarters and subsidiaries of the world’s biggest manufacturing, energy, and utility companies. Our results suggest that financial incentives and legal requirements to audit energy use reduce companies’ emissions, whereas support schemes aimed at promoting the combined generation of heat and power increased emissions of non-utility companies and feed-in tariffs aimed at increasing the use of renewable energy sources for electricity generation increase emissions of utility companies. We also find loans and subsidies for energy efficiency improvements to increase emissions in the short term. In addition, our results provide a solid foundation for researchers seeking consistent and comparable estimates on the mitigation effects of typical climate policy instruments in a cross-country setting. |
| Keywords: | climate policy evaluation, greenhouse gas emissions, cross-country micro panel data, companies, firms |
| JEL: | H23 H32 Q42 Q48 Q54 Q58 |
| Date: | 2017 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_6651&r=env |
| By: | Mario Larch; Markus Löning; Joschka Wanner |
| Abstract: | Unilateral climate policy suffers from carbon leakage, i.e. the (partial) offset of the initial emission reduction by increases in other countries. Different than most typically discussed climate policies, degrowth not only aims at reducing the fossil fuel use in an economy, but rather at a reduction of all factor inputs, which may lead to different leakage implications. We conduct the first investigation of degrowth in a multi-country setting in order to (i) compare the leakage effects of national pure emission reduction policies to degrowth scenarios, (ii) identify underlying channels by decomposing the implied emission changes into scale, composition, and technique effects, and (iii) investigate which country characteristics determine degrowth’s relative effectiveness to overcome the leakage problem. Using a structural gravity model, we find that degrowth indeed significantly reduces leakage by keeping the sectoral composition of the country more stable and reducing uncommitted countries’ incentives to shift towards more energy-intensive production techniques. The higher effectiveness of degrowth in reducing carbon emissions is most pronounced for small and trade-open economies with comparatively clean production technologies. |
| Keywords: | degrowth, climate policy, gravity model, carbon leakage |
| JEL: | F18 Q54 Q57 |
| Date: | 2017 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_6633&r=env |
| By: | Halkos, George |
| Abstract: | Energy is a very important topic of research driving the modern world. Energy production and consumption are associated with a number of environmental effects that require effective and affordable management. Demanding an enormous amount of energy an immense dispute of energy is scale counted by energy efficiency. Oil and other fossil fuel depletion, reliance on foreign energy sources, energy needs of poorer countries, economic efficiency versus population growth debate, environmental issues like climate change, renewable and other alternative energy sources are some of the issues of concern. This Special Issue contributes to some of the important issues of global energy and sustainability. The applied theoretical and analytical contributions are expected to provide guidance to policy-makers and government officials in designing new policy scenarios for the investigation of the energy consumption and economic growth nexus. The empirical contributions provide also evidence to support and inform current policy debates. |
| Keywords: | Energy; sustainability; development. |
| JEL: | O11 Q40 Q48 Q5 Q56 Q58 |
| Date: | 2017 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:81967&r=env |
| By: | Bernardino Adao; Borghan Narajabad; Ted Loch-Temzelides |
| Abstract: | We study the effect of technological progress on the optimal transition to a renewable energy-fueled world economy. We develop a dynamic general equilibrium model where energy is used as an input in production and can come from fossil or renewable sources. Both require the use of capital, which is also needed in the production of final goods. Renewable energy firms can invest in improving the productivity of their capital stock. The actual improvement is subject to spillovers and involves an opportunity cost. This results in underinvestment in the productivity of renewable energy capital. In the presence of environmental externalities, the optimal allocation can be implemented through a Pigouvian tax on fossil fuel, together with policy that promotes new renewable technologies. We calibrate our model using world-economy data and characterize the transition toward a low carbon economy. We find that it is optimal for renewables to “start small†and pick up their market penetration only later. In the short run, investment is needed mainly to improve productivity in the renewable energy sector. Later, renewable energy contributes by becoming a “modest†engine of economic growth. It takes approximately 150 years before fossil fuel is phased out entirely, resulting in a 2.8 degree Celsius temperature increase. |
| JEL: | D81 H21 Q54 |
| Date: | 2017 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_6372&r=env |
| By: | Diane Aubert; Mireille Chiroleu-Assouline |
| Abstract: | This paper investigates the distributional and efficiency consequences of an environmental tax reform, when the revenue from the green tax is recycled by varying labor tax rates. We build a general equilibrium model with imperfect heterogeneous labor markets, pollution consumption externalities, and non-homothetic preferences (Stone-Geary utility). We show that in the case where the reform appears to be regressive, the gains from the double dividend can be made Pareto improving by using a redistributive non-linear income tax if redistribution is initially not too large. Moreover, the increase of progressivity acts on unemployment and can moderate the trade-off between equity and efficiency. We finally provide numerical illustrations for three European countries featuring different labor market behaviors. We show that a double dividend may be obtained without worsening the initial inequalities if the green tax revenues are redistributed with a progressivity index lower for UK than for France and Germany. |
| Keywords: | environmental tax reform, heterogeneity, unemployment, welfare analysis, tax progressivity |
| JEL: | D62 D63 H23 Q52 Q58 |
| Date: | 2017 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_6498&r=env |
| By: | Giovanni Marin (Department of Economics, Society and Politics, University of Urbino 'Carlo Bo', Italy); Francesco Vona (OFCE-SciencesPo and SKEMA Business School, Sophia Antipolis, France) |
| Abstract: | This paper evaluates the historical influence of energy prices on a series of measures of environmental and economic performance for a panel of French manufacturing establishments over the period 1997-2010. The focus on energy prices is motivated by the fact that changes in environmental and energy policies have been dominated by substantial reductions in discounts for large consumers, making the evaluation of each policy in isolation exceedingly difficult. To identify price effects, we construct a shift-share instrument that captures only the exogenous variation in establishment-specific energy prices. Our results highlight a trade-off between environmental and economic goals: although a 10\% increase in energy prices brings about a 6\% reduction in energy consumption and to a 11\% reduction in CO2 emissions, such an increase also has a modestly negative impact on employment (-2.6\%) and very small impact on wages and productivity. The negative employment effects are mostly concentrated in energy-intensive and trade-exposed sectors. Simulating the effect of a carbon tax, we show that job losses for the most exposed sectors can be quite large. However, these effects are upper bounds and we show that they are significantly mitigated in multi-plant firms by labor reallocation across establishments. |
| Keywords: | energy prices, establishment performance, environmental and energy policy |
| JEL: | Q52 Q48 H23 D22 |
| Date: | 2017–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:srt:wpaper:0717&r=env |
| By: | Buggle, Johannes; Durante, Ruben |
| Abstract: | This research examines the historical relationship between economic risk and the evolution of social cooperation. We hypothesize that norms of generalized trust developed in pre-industrial times as a result of experiences of cooperation triggered by the need of subsistence farmers to cope with climatic risk. These norms persisted over time, even after climate had become largely unimportant for economic activity. We test this hypothesis for Europe combining high-resolution climate data for the period 1500-2000 with survey data at the sub-national level. We find that regions with higher inter-annual variability in precipitation and temperature display higher levels of trust. This effect is driven by variability in the growing season months, and by historical rather than recent variability. Regarding possible mechanisms, we find that regions with more variable climate were more closely connected to the Medieval trade network, indicating a higher propensity to engage in inter-community exchange. These regions were also more likely to adopt inclusive political institutions earlier on, and are characterized by a higher quality of local governments still today. Our findings suggest that, by favoring the emergence of mutually-reinforcing norms and institutions, exposure to environmental risk had a long-lasting impact on human cooperation. |
| Keywords: | Climate; Cooperation; Persistence; Political Institutions; Risk; Trust |
| JEL: | N53 O11 O13 Q54 Z10 |
| Date: | 2017–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cpr:ceprdp:12380&r=env |
| By: | Justin Leroux; Daniel Spiro |
| Abstract: | Arctic oil extraction is inconsistent with the 2°C target. We study unilateral strategies by climate-concerned Arctic countries to deter extraction by others. Contradicting common theoretical assumptions about climate-change mitigation, our setting is one where countries may fundamentally disagree about whether mitigation by others is beneficial. Arctic extraction requires specific R&D, hence entry by one country expands the extraction-technology market, decreasing costs for others. Less environmentally-concerned countries (preferring maximum entry) have a first-mover advantage but, being reliant on entry by others, can be deterred if environmentally-concerned countries (preferring no entry) credibly coordinate on not following. Furthermore, using a pooling strategy, an environmentally-concerned country can deter entry by credibly “pretending†to be environmentally adamant, thus expected to not follow. A rough calibration, accounting for recent developments in U.S. politics, suggests a country like Norway, or prospects of a green future U.S. administration, could be pivotal in determining whether the Arctic will be explored. |
| Keywords: | arctic region, oil exploration, climate change, geopolitics, unilateral action |
| JEL: | D82 F50 O33 Q30 Q54 |
| Date: | 2017 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_6629&r=env |
| By: | Mike Farjam (Department of Social Studies, Linnaeus University, Växjö Sweden; and Linnaeus University Centre for Data Intensive Sciences & Applications (DISA@LNU), Växjö Sweden); Olexandr Nikolaychuk (Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany); Giangiacomo Bravo (Department of Social Studies, Linnaeus University, Växjö Sweden; and Linnaeus University Centre for Data Intensive Sciences & Applications (DISA@LNU), Växjö Sweden) |
| Abstract: | Effective communication of risks involved in the climate change discussion is crucial and despite ambitious protection policies, the possibility of irreversible consequences actually occurring can only be diminished but never ruled out completely. We present a laboratory experiment that studies how residual risk of failure affects willingness to contribute to climate protection policies. Contrary to our initial hypothesis, we find that the contributions were higher in treatments with residual risk than in treatments without one. We interpret this as an outcome of a psychological process where residual risk puts participants into an "alarm mode", keeping their contributions high. We discuss the broad practical implications this might have on the real world communication of climate change. |
| Keywords: | collective risk social dilemma, climate change mitigation, voluntary contribution, experiment, risk |
| JEL: | D71 Q54 H41 D80 |
| Date: | 2017–10–18 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:jrp:jrpwrp:2017-014&r=env |
| By: | Aditya Kusuma; Ilan Noy; Bethanna Jackson |
| Abstract: | The potentially adverse effects of droughts on agricultural output are obvious. Indonesian rice farmers have no financial protection from climate risk via catastrophic weather risk transfer tools. Done well, a weather index insurance (WII) program can not only provide resources that enable recovery, but can also facilitate the adoption of prevention and adaptation measures and incentivise risk reduction. Here, we quantify the applicability, viability, and likely cost of introducing a WII for droughts for rice production in Indonesia. To reduce basis risk, we construct district specific indices that are based on the estimation of Panel Geographically Weighted Regressions models. With these spatial tools, and detailed district level data on past agricultural productivity and weather conditions, we present an algorithm that generates an effective and actuarially sound WII, and measure its effectiveness in reducing income volatility for farmers. We use data on annual paddy production in 428 Indonesian districts, reported over the period 1990-2013, and climate data from 1950-2015. We use the monthly Palmer Drought Severity Index and identify district-specific trigger and exit points for the insurance plan. We quantify the impact of this hypothetical insurance product using past production data to calculate an actuarially-robust and welfare-enhancing price for this scheme. |
| Keywords: | index insurance, rice, Indonesia |
| JEL: | Q54 |
| Date: | 2017 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_6530&r=env |
| By: | Bas Jacobs; Rick van der Ploeg |
| Abstract: | This paper analyses optimal corrective taxation and optimal income redistribution. Under general utility functions, the Pigouvian pollution tax is higher if pollution damages disproportionally hurt the poor due to equity weighting of pollution damages. Moreover, optimal pollution taxes should be set below the Pigouvian tax if the poor spend a disproportionate fraction of their income on polluting goods. However, if preferences for commodities are of the Gorman (1961) polar form, optimal pollution taxes should follow the first-best rule for the Pigouvian corrective tax even if the government wants to redistribute income and the poor spend a disproportional part of their income on polluting goods. The often-used quasi-linear, CES and Stone-Geary utility functions all belong to the Gorman polar class. If preferences are Gorman polar, and if pollution taxes are not optimized, Pareto-improving green tax reforms exist that move the pollution tax closer to the Pigouvian tax. Simulations demonstrate that optimal corrective taxes should be Pigouvian if the demand for polluting goods is derived from a LES demand system, but deviate from the Pigouvian taxes if demand for polluting goods demand is derived from a PIGLOG demand system. |
| Keywords: | redistributive taxation, corrective pollution taxation, Gorman polar form, Stone-Geary preferences, PIGLOG preferences, green tax reform |
| JEL: | H21 H23 Q54 |
| Date: | 2017 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_6599&r=env |
| By: | Dominik Wiedenhofer; Dabo Guan; Zhu Liu; Jing Meng; Zhang, Ning; Wei, Yi-Ming |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:qsh:wpaper:512821&r=env |
| By: | Robin Boadway (Queen's University, ON, Canada); Motohiro Sato (Hitotsubashi University, Japan); Jean-François Tremblay (University of Ottawa, ON, Canada) |
| Abstract: | We analyze a natural resource extraction problem in a two-region economy with mobile labour. One of the regions produces only manufacturing goods while the other produces agriculture and extracts a nonrenewable natural resource. The manufacturing sector exhibits increasing returns-to-scale if the level of production is sufficiently high. There are multiple equilibrium allocations of labour towards which the economy may converge in the long-run depending on the initial stock of natural resource and the initial distribution of labour. Under decentralized resource management, there is a tendency to over-extract the resource relative to the constrained federal optimum, which tends to enlarge the set of initial conditions under which the economy converges to the low-income equilibrium. The optimal path of extraction from the perspective of the federation satisfies a modified Hotelling’s rule that takes into account the impact of resource extraction on manufacturing production. |
| Keywords: | Natural resource extraction, decentralization, inter-regional mobility |
| JEL: | H70 Q32 Q33 |
| Date: | 2017 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ott:wpaper:1714e&r=env |
| By: | Julie-Anne Cronin; Don Fullerton; Steven Sexton |
| Abstract: | Because electricity is a higher fraction of spending for those with low income, carbon taxes are believed to be regressive. Many argue, however, that their revenues can be used to offset the regressivity. We assess these claims by employing data on 322,000 families in the U.S. Treasury’s Distribution Model to study vertical redistributions between rich and poor, as well as horizontal redistributions among families with common incomes but heterogeneous energy intensity of consumption (different home heating and cooling demands). Accounting for the statutory indexing of transfers, and measuring impacts on annual consumption as a proxy for permanent income, we find that the carbon tax burden is progressive, rising across deciles as a fraction of consumption. The rebate of revenue via transfers makes it even more progressive. In every decile, the standard deviation of the change in consumption as a fraction of consumption varies around 1% or 2% and is larger than the average burden (about 0.7%). When existing transfer programs are used to rebate revenue, the tax and rebate together increase that variation to more than 3% within each decile. The average family in the poorest decile gets a net tax cut of about 1% of consumption, but 44% of them get a net tax increase. Relative to no rebate, every type of rebate we consider increases this variation within most deciles. |
| Keywords: | incidence, climate policy, revenue-neutral reform |
| JEL: | Q58 |
| Date: | 2017 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ces:ceswps:_6373&r=env |
| By: | Vicente Ruiz (Université Paris 1 – Panthéon Sorbonne) |
| Abstract: | A growing body of evidence suggests that changes in both environmental quality and climatic patterns influence population movements. In this paper, I provide evidence-based analysis on the effects of climatic factors on internal migration in Mexico. In particular, I focus my analysis on the role of earthquakes, hurricanes, droughts, and floods. My results show that both floods and droughts act as push factors for internal migration. In addition, my results show that socio-economic factors such as wage differentials, education levels, and violence also act as push factors. |
| Keywords: | Internal migration, Climate change, Gravity model, Mexico |
| JEL: | Q54 J11 |
| Date: | 2017–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fae:wpaper:2017.19&r=env |
| By: | Petersen, Dana; Hanna, Mark |
| Date: | 2016–03–23 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:isu:genstf:201603231539361401&r=env |
| By: | Duffy, Michael D. |
| Date: | 2016–03–28 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:isu:genstf:201603281422051425&r=env |
| By: | Alexander Monge-Naranjo; Juan M. Sánchez; Raül Santaeulàlia-Llopis |
| Abstract: | Are production factors allocated efficiently across countries? To differentiate misallocation from factor intensity differences, we provide a new methodology to estimate output shares of natural resources based solely on current rent flows data. With this methodology, we construct a new dataset of estimates for the output shares of natural resources for a large panel of countries. In sharp contrast with Caselli and Feyrer (2007), we find a significant and persistent degree of misallocation of physical capital. We also find a remarkable movement toward efficiency during last 35 years, associated with the elimination of interventionist policies and driven by domestic accumulation. Interestingly, when both physical and human capital can be reallocated, capital would often flow from poor to rich countries. |
| Keywords: | natural rents, factor shares, misallocation, international flows, human capital |
| JEL: | O11 O16 O41 |
| Date: | 2017–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:bge:wpaper:994&r=env |
| By: | Jorge García Hombrados (Department of Economics, University of Sussex) |
| Abstract: | Natural disasters cause human losses, destroy economic assets and are often followed by widespread looting and increases in altruistic behaviour; affecting ambiguously the long-term benefits and costs of crime. This study investigates whether the multiple consequences of natural disasters lead to lasting changes in property crime rates through assessing the effect on property crime dynamics of the 8.8 Richter Magnitude earthquake that struck Chile in February 2010. Using household data from victimization surveys and a difference in difference strategy, the analysis shows that exposure to a very strong earthquake intensity decreased by 1.1-2.2 percentage points the probability of home burglary the year of the earthquake. The effect remained stable over the 4 post-earthquake years studied. Similar effects of the earthquake are found for other property crimes including larceny and non-home burglary. The analysis of mechanisms reveals that the lasting drop in property crime rates in areas devastated by the earthquake seems to be linked to the positive effect of the earthquake on the strength of community life and on the adoption of community-based strategies to prevent crime in these municipalities. |
| Keywords: | natural disasters, crime, informal guardianship |
| JEL: | K42 Q54 |
| Date: | 2017–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:sus:susewp:1717&r=env |
| By: | Bocar Samba Ba (Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches sur le Développement International (CERDI)); Raphaël Soubeyran (Institut National de Recherches Agronomiques (INRA) de Montpellier (LAMETA)) |
| Abstract: | We study the exploitation of recyclable exhaustible resources such as rare earths and Phosphorus. We use a standard Hotelling model of resource exploitation that includes a primary sector and a recycling sector. We show that, when the primary sector is competitive, the price of the recyclable resource increases through time. This result stands in contrast to durable resources, for which the optimal price path is either decreasing or U-shaped. We then show a new reason why the price of an exhaustible resource may decrease: when the primary sector is monopolistic, the primary producer has incentives to delay its production activities in order to delay recycling. As a consequence, the price path of the recyclable resource may be U-shaped. We also show that a technological improvement in the recycling sector increases the price in the short term but decreases it later. |
| Keywords: | Rare earths, Phosphorus, Recycling, Competition, Optimal control |
| JEL: | D40 D43 L12 L13 Q31 |
| Date: | 2017–01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fae:wpaper:2017.01&r=env |
| By: | Damien BROUSSOLLE (LaRGE Research Center, Université de Strasbourg) |
| Abstract: | Reducing the volume of kerbside waste has become a vital goal for many cities in the world. Since the pricing of communal waste services is often inefficient, economic literature promotes an incentive scheme, which most frequently consist in a unit pricing, “pay as you throw” system. Based on empirical studies, advanced economic works and the French experience, the paper explains why this approach is fairly limited. Unit pricing faces practical difficulties and does not fit to collective housing. Whether households’ motivation is utilitarian or value oriented, the analysis of their behaviour shows that, a too large extension of the inducement part of the price, might bring about significant inconveniences. Finally, a small incentive part is to be favoured. It may seem unsatisfactory and contradictory to the very principle of incentive pricing, but the paper underlines it is not so. Nevertheless, an incentive scheme for households must also use other inducing mechanisms. The deposit refund system is the prominent one; it basically aims at the same goals as unit pricing, but avoids its troubles. NOTICE: the paper is in French |
| JEL: | Q52 D62 R28 D91 H31 |
| Date: | 2017–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:lar:wpaper:2017-11&r=env |