[go: up one dir, main page]
Wikipedia

Jet Propulsion Laboratory: Difference between revisions

Browse history interactively
← Previous edit
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
MOS:CAPS, spacing
GreenC bot (talk | contribs)
Bots
2,458,260 edits
 
(39 intermediate revisions by 29 users not shown)
Line 1:
{{short description|Research and development center and NASA field center in California, United States}}
{{Redirect|JPL}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2023}} {{Use American English|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox laboratory
| namelogo = JetNASA PropulsionJPL LaboratoryMeatball Logo.webp
| logo_size = 297px
| logo = Jet Propulsion Laboratory logo.svg
| image = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
Line 16 ⟶ 17:
}}
| alt = An image featuring a birds-eye, aerial view of the laboratory campus buildings and surrounding landscape. The site is nestled in a valley between green, rolling mountains.
| caption = Clockwise from the top:aarial aerial view of JPL, [[NISAR (satellite)|NISAR]] testing in the [[Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator|Space Simulator]], [[Sojourner (rover)|Sojourner]] at JPL's Mars Yard, [[Mars 2020|Mars 2020 rover]], and JPL Mission Control
| established = {{Start date and age|1936|10|31|mf=y}}
| type = Applied
Line 33 ⟶ 34:
}}
 
The '''Jet Propulsion Laboratory''' ('''JPL''') is a [[Federally funded research and development centers|federally funded research and development center]] (FFRDC) in [[PasadenaLa Cañada Flintridge, California]], Crescenta Valley, United States.<ref name="Henry">{{cite news |first=Jason |last=Henry |title=Why does everyone say NASA's JPL is in Pasadena when this other city is its real home? |url=http://www.pasadenastarnews.com/science/20160713/why-does-everyone-say-nasas-jpl-is-in-pasadena-when-this-other-city-is-its-real-home |newspaper=[[Pasadena Star-News]] |date=2016-07-14 |access-date=2023-02-25 |archive-date=2017-08-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170802044813/http://www.pasadenastarnews.com/science/20160713/why-does-everyone-say-nasas-jpl-is-in-pasadena-when-this-other-city-is-its-real-home |url-status=live }}</ref> Founded in 1936 by [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]] researchers, the laboratory is now owned and sponsored by the [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA) and administratedadministered and managed by the [[California Institute of Technology]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Master Government List of Federally Funded R&D Centers {{!}} NCSES {{!}} NSF |url=https://www.nsf.gov/statistics/ffrdclist/ |access-date=2023-03-08 |website=www.nsf.gov |archive-date=2022-10-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007025535/https://nsf.gov/statistics/ffrdclist/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=History |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/about/history.php |access-date=2023-02-25 |publisher=Jet Propulsion Laboratory |archive-date=2020-12-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201212121341/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/about/history.php |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
The laboratory's primary function of the laboratory is the construction and operation of planetary [[robotic spacecraft]], though it also conducts Earth-orbit and astronomy missions. It is also responsible for operating the [[NASA Deep Space Network]] (DSN).
 
Among the laboratory's major active projects at the laboratory, some are the [[Mars 2020]] mission, which includes the ''[[Perseverance (rover)|Perseverance]]'' rover and the ''[[Mars Helicopter Ingenuity|Ingenuity]]'' Mars helicopter; the [[Mars Science Laboratory]] mission, including the ''[[Curiosity (rover)|Curiosity]]'' rover; the ''[[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]]''; the ''[[Juno (spacecraft)|Juno]]'' spacecraft orbiting [[Jupiter]]; the ''[[Soil Moisture Active Passive|SMAP]]'' satellite for earthEarth surface soil moisture monitoring; the [[NuSTAR]] [[X-ray telescope]]; and the forthcoming ''[[Psyche (spacecraft)|Psyche]]'' asteroid orbiter. It is also responsible for managing the [[JPL Small-Body Database]], and provides physical data and lists of publications for all known [[small Solar System body|small Solar System bodies]].
 
JPL's [[Space Flight Operations Facility]] and [[Twenty-Five-Foot Space Simulator]] are designated [[National Historic Landmark]]s.
 
==History==
[[File:P1-RocketBoys (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|240x240px|The "Suicide Squad" of (left to right) Rudolph Schott, [[Apollo M. O. Smith|Apollo Milton Olin Smith]], [[Frank Malina]], Ed Forman and [[Jack Parsons]] testing thetheir first liquid-fueled rocket engine.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=The Spark of a New Era |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/the-spark-of-a-new-era |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) |language=en-US |archive-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805082742/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/the-spark-of-a-new-era |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
JPL traces its beginnings to 1936 in the [[Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory]] at the California Institute of Technology (GALCIT) when the first set of [[United States]] rocket experiments were carried out in the [[Arroyo Seco (Los Angeles County)|Arroyo Seco]].<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=The Guggenheim Aeronautics Laboratory at Caltech and the creation of the modern rocket motor (1936–1946): How the dynamics of rocket theory became reality |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999PhDT........48Z |date=1999 |first=Benjamin Seth |last=Zibit |bibcode=1999PhDT........48Z |access-date=2021-02-19 |archive-date=2017-07-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710182842/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999PhDT........48Z |url-status=live }}</ref> This initial venture involved Caltech graduate students [[Frank Malina]], [[Qian Xuesen]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-me-qian-xuesen1-2009nov01-story.html | title=Qian Xuesen dies at 98; rocket scientist helped establish Jet Propulsion Laboratory | website=[[Los Angeles Times]] | date=September 17, 2014 | access-date=March 12, 2024 | archive-date=January 15, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200115040111/https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-me-qian-xuesen1-2009nov01-story.html | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/profile/qian-xuesen/ | title=Qian Xuesen - Nuclear Museum | access-date=March 12, 2024 | archive-date=January 28, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230128025801/https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/profile/qian-xuesen/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Weld Arnold<ref>{{cite web |title=Science: Quiet Space Lab |date=October 5, 1959 |url=https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,894281-1,00.html |publisher=Time Magazine |access-date=April 28, 2023 |archive-date=April 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429022034/https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,894281-1,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Apollo M. O. Smith]], along with [[Jack Parsons (rocket engineer)|Jack Parsons]] and [[Edward S. Forman]], often referred to as the "Suicide Squad" due to the dangerous nature of their experiments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Landis |first=Geoffrey A. |date=2005 |editor-last=Pendle |editor-first=Geirge |editor2-last=Lord |editor2-first=M. G. |title=The Three Rocketeers |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27858614 |journal=American Scientist |volume=93 |issue=4 |pages=361–363 |jstor=27858614 |issn=0003-0996 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805082735/https://www.jstor.org/stable/27858614 |url-status=live }}</ref> Together, they tested a small, alcohol-fueled motor to gather data for Malina's graduate thesis.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Characteristics of the rocket motor and flight analyses of the sounding rocket |url=https://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechTHESIS:08202010-143142441 |publisher=California Institute of Technology |date=1940 |degree=phd |language=en |first=Frank Joseph |last=Malina |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523064729/https://thesis.library.caltech.edu/6003/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Malina's thesis advisor was engineer/aerodynamicist [[Theodore von Kármán]], who eventually secured U.S. Army financial support for this "GALCIT Rocket Project" in 1939.
 
=== Rocketry beginnings ===
In the early years of the project, work was primarily focused on the development of rocket technology. In 1941, Malina, Parsons, Forman, [[Martin Summerfield]], and pilot Homer Bushey demonstrated the first jet-assisted takeoff ([[JATO]]) rockets to the Army. In 1943, von Kármán, Malina, Parsons, and Forman established the [[Aerojet]] Corporation to manufacture JATO rockets. The project took on the name Jet Propulsion Laboratory in November 1943, formally becoming an Army facility operated under contract by the university.<ref>{{cite web |title=Early Years |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/jplhistory/early/settingstakes.php |publisher=JPL |access-date=2010-08-18 |archive-date=2015-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607172134/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/jplhistory/early/settingstakes.php |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Koppes">{{cite journal |first=Clayton |last=Koppes |title=JPL and the American Space Program |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=89 |issue=2 |date=1 April 1982}}</ref><ref name="Conway">{{cite web |first=Erik M. |last=Conway |title=From Rockets to Spacecraft: Making JPL a Place for Planetary Science |website=Engineering and Science |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=2–10 |url=http://pr.caltech.edu/periodicals/EandS/ESarchive-frame.html |access-date=2009-01-12 |archive-date=2011-01-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107010604/http://pr.caltech.edu/periodicals/EandS/ESarchive-frame.html |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="High Frontier">{{cite book |last=Launius |first=Roger |title=To Reach High Frontier, A History of U.S. Launch Vehicles |date=2002 |publisher=University of Kentucky |isbn=978-0-813-12245-8 |pages=39–42}}</ref> In the same year, Qian and two of his colleagues drafted the first document to use the name Jet Propulsion Laboratory.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/universe/archive/un0911.pdf |title=Archived copy |website=[[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] |access-date=February 25, 2024 |archive-date=April 6, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406064002/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/universe/archive/un0911.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
[[File:Von Karman and JATO Team - GPN-2000-001652 (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|250x250px|[[Theodore von Kármán]] sketching out a plan on the wing of an airplane. From left to right: [[Clark Blanchard Millikan|Clark B. Millikan]], [[Martin Summerfield]], von Kármán, Frank J. Malina and pilot, Capt. Homer Boushey.]]
In a NASA conference on the history of early rocketry, Malina wrote that the work of the JPL was "considered to include" the research carried out by the GALCIT Rocket Research Group from 1936 on.<ref name="Malina-1969">{{cite conference |last=Malina |first=F. J. |date=1969 <!--typewritten manuscript, 32 pages; series=JPL History collection; oclc=733101419 --> |publication-date=September 1977 |authorlink=Frank Malina |title=The U.S. Army Air Corps Jet Propulsion Research Project, GALCIT Project No. 1, 1939–1946: A Memoir. |conference=Essays on the History of rocketry and astronautics: proceedings of the third through the sixth Symposia of the International Academy of Astronautics |editor1-last=Hall |editor1-first=R. Cargill |volume=2 Part III The Development of Liquid- and Solid-propellant Rockets, 1880–1945 |publisher=NASA Scientific and Technical Information Office |location=Washington, D.C. |series=NASA conference publication, 2014 |id=CP 2014 |oclc=5354560 |page=153 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSSwnl3_OA8C&pg=PA153 <!|access-- alt-url1date=https://books.google.com/books?id=nP6HXGchSI0CJuly (vol.27, 1);2023 alt|archive-url2date=https://books.google.com/books?id=OvAbvtSysd0CJuly (vol.27, 2);2023 alt|archive-url3url=https://booksweb.googlearchive.comorg/web/20230727190601/books?id=nyMLBai2n-EC (vol. 1); alt-url4=https://books.google.com/books?id=L5nuP8YrQFMCPSSwnl3_OA8C&pg=PA153 (vol.|url-status=live 2) -->}}</ref> In 1944, Parsons was expelled due to his "unorthodox and unsafe working methods" following one of several FBI investigations into his involvement with the occult, drugs and sexual promiscuity.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/jpl-jack-parsons |title=Occultist father of rocketry 'written out' of Nasa's history |last=Solon |first=Olivia |date=April 23, 2014 |magazine=Wired UK |publisher=Condé Nast |access-date=6 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://nypost.com/2018/06/19/thisarchive-sex-crazed-cultist-was-the-father-of-modern-rocketry/ |title=This sex-crazed cultist was the father of modern rocketry |last=Oleksinski |first=Johnny |date=JuneOctober 197, 2018 |website=New York Post |publisher=News Corp |access-date=6 October 2019 |archive-date=6 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/2019100605424420191007022927/https://nypostwww.comwired.co.uk/2018article/06/19/thisjpl-sexjack-crazed-cultist-was-the-father-of-modern-rocketry/parsons |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
During JPL's Army years, the laboratory developed two significant deployed weapon systems, the [[MGM-5 Corporal]] and [[MGM-29 Sergeant]] intermediate-range ballistic missiles, marking the first US ballistic missiles developed at JPL.<ref>{{cite conference |author=Keymeulen, Didier |display-authors=4 |author2=Myers, John |author3=Newton, Jason |author4=Csaszar, Ambrus |author5=Gan, Quan |author6=Hidalgo, Tim |author7=Moore, Jeff |author8=Sandoval, Steven |author9=Xu, Jiajing | author10=Schon, Aaron |author11=Assad, Chris |author12=Stoica, Adrian |title=Humanoids for Lunar and Planetary Surface Operations |hdl=2014/39699 |location=Pasadena, CA |work=Jet Propulsion Laboratory, National Aeronautics and Space Administration |date=2006 |publisher=JPL TRS 1992+}}</ref> It also developed a number ofseveral other weapons system prototypes, such as the Loki anti-aircraft missile system, and the forerunner of the [[Aerobee]] sounding rocket. At various times, it carried out rocket testing at the [[White Sands Missile Range|White Sands Proving Ground]], [[Edwards Air Force Base]], and [[Goldstone, California]].<ref name="High Frontier" />
 
=== Transition to NASA ===
In 1954, JPL teamed up with [[Wernher von Braun]]'s engineers at the [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]]'s [[Redstone Arsenal]] in [[Huntsville, Alabama]], to propose orbiting a satellite during the [[International Geophysical Year]]. The team lost that proposal to [[Project Vanguard]], and instead embarked on a classified project to demonstrate ablative re-entry technology using a [[Jupiter-C]] rocket. They carried out three successful sub-orbital flights in 1956 and 1957. Using a spare [[Juno I]] (a modified Jupiter-C with a fourth stage), the two organizations then launched the United States' first satellite, [[Explorer 1]], on January 31, 1958.<ref name="Koppes" /><ref name="Conway" /> This significant achievement marked a new era for JPL and the US in the space race.
 
Less than a year later in December 1958, JPL was transferred to the newly formed [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA).<ref name="bello1959">{{cite news |url=http://features.blogs.fortune.cnn.com/2012/06/03/the-early-space-age-fortune-1959/?section=magazines_fortune |title=The Early Space Age |work=Fortune |date=1959 |access-date=June 5, 2012 |author=Bello, Francis |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103053024/http://features.blogs.fortune.cnn.com/2012/06/03/the-early-space-age-fortune-1959/?section=magazines_fortune |archive-date=November 3, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref> As a result of this transition, JPL became the agency's primary planetary spacecraft center, leading the design and operation of various lunar and interplanetary missions. The transfer to NASA marked the beginning of a "Golden Age" of planetary exploration for JPL in the 1960s and 1970s.<ref>{{Citation |last=Shipman |first=Harry L. |title=The Golden Age of Planetary Exploration |date=1987 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-6054-2_8 |work=Space 2000 |pages=163–193 |access-date=2023-08-05 |place=Boston, MA |publisher=Springer US |doi=10.1007/978-1-4899-6054-2_8 |isbn=978-0-306-42534-9 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523064732/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4899-6054-2_8 |url-status=live }}</ref> JPL engineers designed and operated [[Ranger program|Ranger]] and [[Surveyor program|Surveyor]] missions to the [[Moon]] that paved the way for the [[Apollo program]]. JPL proved itself a leader in [[interplanetary travel|interplanetary exploration]] with the [[Mariner program|Mariner]] missions to [[Venus]], [[Mars]], and [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]], returning valuable data about our neighboring planets.<ref name="Koppes" />
 
Additionally, JPL was early to employ female mathematicians. In the 1940s and 1950s, using mechanical calculators, women in an all-female computations group performed trajectory calculations.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200525094753/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=1327 Women Made Early Inroads at JPL – NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory]. Jpl.nasa.gov. Retrieved on 2013-07-21.</ref><ref>[http://www.redstone.army.mil/history/women_chron/1.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107193900/http://www.redstone.army.mil/history/women_chron/1.html|date=November 7, 2010}}</ref> In 1961, JPL hired [[Dana Ulery]] as the first female engineer to work alongside male engineers as part of the [[Ranger program|Ranger]] and [[Mariner program|Mariner]] mission tracking teams.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bibliography |url=http://pub-lib.jpl.nasa.gov/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-697/Bibliography39-03_1961-1962.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131012405/https://pub-lib.jpl.nasa.gov/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-697/Bibliography39-03_1961-1962.pdf |archive-date=2017-01-31 |access-date=2011-01-10 |website=pub-lib.jpl.nasa.gov}}</ref>
 
=== Deep space exploration ===
Building on the momentum from the successes of the 1960s and early 1970s, JPL initiated an era of deep space exploration in the late 1970s and 1980s. The highlight of this period was the launch of the twin [[Voyager program|Voyager spacecraft]] in 1977.<ref>{{Citation |title=Medieval Hebrew Manuscript Fragments in Switzerland: Some Highlights of the Discoveries |date=2013-01-01 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004258501_012 |work=Books within Books |pages=255–269 |access-date=2023-08-05 |publisher=BRILL |doi=10.1163/9789004258501_012 |isbn=9789004258501 |last1=Isserles |first1=Justine |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523064746/https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004258501/B9789004258501_012.xml |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:JPL Mission Control.jpg|left|thumb|250x250px|JPL Mission Control]]
Initially set on a trajectory to explore Jupiter and its moon Io, [[Voyager 1]]'s mission parameters were adjusted to also provide a close flyby of [[Saturn]]'s moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Witze |first=Alexandra |date=2017 |title=Space science: Voyager at 40 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/548392a |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=548 |issue=7668 |pages=392 |doi=10.1038/548392a |bibcode=2017Natur.548..392W |s2cid=4407597 |issn=1476-4687 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805082743/https://www.nature.com/articles/548392a |url-status=live }}</ref> The spacecraft sent back detailed images and data from both gas giants, revolutionizing our understanding of these distant worlds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Miner |first=Ellis D. |date=1990-07-01 |title=Voyager 2's Encounter with the Gas Giants |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.881251 |journal=Physics Today |volume=43 |issue=7 |pages=40–47 |doi=10.1063/1.881251 |bibcode=1990PhT....43g..40M |issn=0031-9228 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523064734/https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article-abstract/43/7/40/406170/Voyager-2-s-Encounter-with-the-Gas-GiantsWhen?redirectedFrom=fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Voyager 2]] spacecraft followed a more extensive trajectory, conducting flybys of not just Jupiter and Saturn, but also Uranus and Neptune.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=B. A. |last2=Soderblom |first2=L. A. |last3=Banfield |first3=D. |last4=Barnet |first4=c. |last5=Basilevsky |first5=A. T. |last6=Beebe |first6=R. F. |last7=Bollinger |first7=K. |last8=Boyce |first8=J. M. |last9=Brahic |first9=A. |last10=Briggs |first10=G. A. |last11=Brown |first11=R. H. |last12=Chyba |first12=c. |last13=Collins |first13=s. A. |last14=Colvin |first14=T. |last15=Cook |first15=A. F. |date=1989-12-15 |title=Voyager 2 at Neptune: Imaging Science Results |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.246.4936.1422 |journal=Science |volume=246 |issue=4936 |pages=1422–1449 |doi=10.1126/science.246.4936.1422 |pmid=17755997 |bibcode=1989Sci...246.1422S |s2cid=45403579 |issn=0036-8075 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523064818/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.246.4936.1422 |url-status=live }}</ref> These encounters provided firsthand data from all four gas giants, offering insights into the nature and dynamics of the outer planets. Both Voyager spacecraft, after fulfilling their primary mission objectives, were directed towards [[Outer space|interstellar space]], carrying with them the [[Voyager Golden Record|Golden Records]] – phonograph discs containing sounds and images selected to portray the diversity of life on Earth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Meehan |first=Pascale |date=2018-11-14 |title=Rural responses following collapse: insights from Monte El Santo, Oaxaca, Mexico |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00438243.2018.1537858 |journal=World Archaeology |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=328–345 |doi=10.1080/00438243.2018.1537858 |s2cid=158306370 |issn=0043-8243}}</ref>
 
The 1980s also saw the inception of the [[Galileo project|Galileo mission]] which launched in the late 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kivelson |first1=M. G. |last2=Khurana |first2=K. K. |last3=Russell |first3=C. T. |last4=Walker |first4=R. J. |last5=Warnecke |first5=J. |last6=Coroniti |first6=F. V. |last7=Polanskey |first7=C. |last8=Southwood |first8=D. J. |last9=Schubert |first9=G. |date=1996 |title=Discovery of Ganymede's magnetic field by the Galileo spacecraft |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/384537a0 |journal=Nature |volume=384 |issue=6609 |pages=537–541 |doi=10.1038/384537a0 |bibcode=1996Natur.384..537K |s2cid=4246607 |issn=0028-0836 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523064740/https://www.nature.com/articles/384537a0 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Galileo (spacecraft)|Galileo spacecraft]] was designed to study [[Jupiter]] and its major moons in detail.<ref>{{Citation |last=Hricko |first=Jonathon |title=What Can the Discovery of Boron Tell Us About the Scientific Realism Debate? |date=2021-06-10 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190946814.003.0003 |work=Contemporary Scientific Realism |pages=33–55 |access-date=2023-08-05 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190946814.003.0003 |isbn=978-0-19-094681-4 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523065238/https://academic.oup.com/book/39259/chapter-abstract/338811308?redirectedFrom=fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref> Although the probe only entered the gas giant's orbit in the 1990s, its inception and planning during the 1980s signified JPL's continued commitment to deep space exploration.
 
=== Mars exploration ===
The 1990s and 2000s saw a resurgence in [[Mars]] exploration, driven by JPL's [[Mars Pathfinder]] and [[Mars Exploration Rover]] missions.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wright |first1=J. |last2=Trebi-Ollennu |first2=A. |last3=Hartman |first3=F. |last4=Cooper |first4=B. |last5=Maxwell |first5=S. |last6=Jeng Yen |last7=Morrison |first7=J. |title=2005 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics |chapter=Terrain Modelling for In-situ Activity Planning and Rehearsal for the Mars Exploration Rovers |date=2005 |volume=2 |pages=1372–1377 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icsmc.2005.1571338 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/icsmc.2005.1571338 |isbn=0-7803-9298-1 |s2cid=11275990 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523065252/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1571338/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1997, the Mars Pathfinder mission deployed the first successful Mars rover, [[Sojourner (rover)|Sojourner]], demonstrating the feasibility of mobile exploration on the Martian surface. In 2004, the Mars Exploration Rovers, [[Spirit (rover)|Spirit]] and [[Opportunity rover|Opportunity]], landed on Mars. Opportunity outlived its expected lifespan by 14 years, providing a wealth of scientific data and setting the stage for future Mars missions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Konopliv |first1=Alex S. |last2=Park |first2=Ryan S. |last3=Folkner |first3=William M. |date=2016 |title=An improved JPL Mars gravity field and orientation from Mars orbiter and lander tracking data |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2016.02.052 |journal=Icarus |volume=274 |pages=253–260 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2016.02.052 |bibcode=2016Icar..274..253K |issn=0019-1035 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523065311/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103516001305?via%3Dihub |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
=== Earth science and robotic exploration ===
[[File:Mars Science Laboratory mockup comparison.jpg|thumb|MSL mockup compared with the [[Mars Exploration Rover]] and [[Sojourner (rover)|''Sojourner'' rover]] by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory on May 12, 2008|250x250px]]In the 2000s and 2010s, JPL broadened its exploration scope, including the launch of missions to study the outer planets, like the [[Juno (spacecraft)|Juno mission]] to Jupiter and the [[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini-Huygens mission]] to Saturn.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grammier |first=Richard S. |title=2009 IEEE Aerospace conference |chapter=A look inside the Juno Mission to Jupiter |date=2009 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/aero.2009.4839326 |pages=1–10 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/aero.2009.4839326 |isbn=978-1-4244-2621-8 |s2cid=9029002 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523065236/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4839326/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sollazzo |first1=C. |last2=Rakiewicz |first2=J. |last3=Wills |first3=R.D. |date=1995 |title=Cassini-Huygens: Mission operations |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0967-0661(95)00174-s |journal=Control Engineering Practice |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=1631–1640 |doi=10.1016/0967-0661(95)00174-s |issn=0967-0661 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523065239/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/096706619500174S?via%3Dihub |url-status=live }}</ref> Concurrently, JPL also began to focus on Earth science missions, developing satellite technology to study climate change, weather patterns, and natural phenomena on Earth. JPL also opened the Near-Earth Object Program Office for NASA in 1998, which had found 95% of asteroids a kilometer or more in diameter that cross Earth's orbit by 2013.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Whalen |first1=Mark |last2=Murrill |first2=Mary Beth |date=24 July 1998 |title=JPL will establish Near-Earth Object Program Office for NASA |url=http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/program/neo.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313011043/http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/program/neo.html |archive-date=13 March 2013 |access-date=19 February 2013 |website=Jet Propulsion Laboratory |publisher=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=18 February 2013 |title=NASA scrambles for better asteroid detection |newspaper=[[France 24]] |url=http://mobile.france24.com/en/20130218-nasa-scrambles-better-asteroid-detection |url-status=dead |access-date=19 February 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130410235718/http://mobile.france24.com/en/20130218-nasa-scrambles-better-asteroid-detection |archive-date=10 April 2013}}</ref>
 
Entering the 2010s and 2020s, JPL continued its Mars exploration with the Curiosity rover and the Mars 2020 mission, which included the [[Perseverance (rover)|Perseverance rover]] and the retired [[Ingenuity (helicopter)|Ingenuity helicopter]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tzanetos |first1=Theodore |last2=Aung |first2=MiMi |last3=Balaram |first3=J. |last4=Grip |first4=Havard Fjrer |last5=Karras |first5=Jaakko T. |last6=Canham |first6=Timothy K. |last7=Kubiak |first7=Gerik |last8=Anderson |first8=Joshua |last9=Merewether |first9=Gene |last10=Starch |first10=Michael |last11=Pauken |first11=Mike |last12=Cappucci |first12=Stefano |last13=Chase |first13=Matthew |last14=Golombek |first14=Matthew |last15=Toupet |first15=Olivier |title=2022 IEEE Aerospace Conference (AERO) |chapter=Ingenuity Mars Helicopter: From Technology Demonstration to Extraterrestrial Scout |date=2022-03-05 |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/aero53065.2022.9843428 |pages=01–19 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/aero53065.2022.9843428 |isbn=978-1-6654-3760-8 |s2cid=251473148 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523065238/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9843428/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Perseverance's core objective was to collect samples for a future Mars Sample Return (MSR) mission. In addition, JPL ventured into asteroid exploration with the [[OSIRIS-REx]] mission aimingwhich to returnreturned a sample from asteroid [[101955 Bennu|Bennu]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=JPL Science: OSIRIS |url=https://science.jpl.nasa.gov/projects/osiris/ |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=science.jpl.nasa.gov |archive-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230805082742/https://science.jpl.nasa.gov/projects/osiris/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
=== 2020s and beyond ===
As JPL moves forward, its focus remains on diverse interplanetary and even interstellar missions. Future Mars missions will aim to return the samples collected by the Perseverance rover back to Earth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Czaja |first1=Andrew |last2=Benison |first2=Kathleen |last3=Bosak |first3=Tanja |last4=Cohen |first4=Barbara A. |last5=Hausrath |first5=Elisabeth M. |last6=Hickman-Lewis |first6=Keyron |last7=Mayhew |first7=Lisa E. |last8=Shuster |first8=David L. |last9=Siljeström |first9=Sandra |last10=Simon |first10=Justin I. |last11=Weiss |first11=Benjamin P. |title=Samples and Notional Caches from Jezero Crater and Beyond for Mars Sample Return |date=2021 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/abs/2021am-367976 |journal=Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs |publisher=Geological Society of America |doi=10.1130/abs/2021am-367976 |s2cid=240134541 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523065238/https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2021AM/webprogram/Paper367976.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, JPL's planned [[Europa Clipper]] mission is set to launchlaunched in the 2020s2024 to study Jupiter's moon [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], believed to harbor a subsurface ocean.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NASA's Europa Clipper |url=https://europa.nasa.gov/ |access-date=2023-08-05 |website=NASA's Europa Clipper |archive-date=April 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404000842/https://europa.nasa.gov/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Building on the Voyager program's success, JPL continues to push the boundaries of deep-space exploration. The [[Interstellar probe|Interstellar Probe]] concept, though not yet formalized, proposes to send a spacecraft ten times the distance from the Sun as Pluto, to explore the interstellar medium and the outermost reaches of our solar system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mewaldt |first1=R. |last2=Liewer |first2=P. |date=2000-08-22 |title=An interstellar probe mission to the boundaries of the heliosphere and nearby interstellar space |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/6.2000-5173 |journal=Space 2000 Conference and Exposition |location=Reston, Virigina |publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics |doi=10.2514/6.2000-5173 |access-date=August 5, 2023 |archive-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523065742/https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.2000-5173 |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
JPL has been recognized four times by the [[Space Foundation]]: with the Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach Award, which is given annually to an individual or organization that has made significant contributions to public awareness of space programs, in 1998; and with the John L. "Jack" Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration on three occasions – in 2009 (as part of NASA's Phoenix Mars Lander Team<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.spacefoundation.org/2009/02/19/the-phoenix-mars-lander-team-wins-2009-jack-swigert-award-for-space-exploration/ |title=The Phoenix Mars Lander Team Wins 2009 Jack Swigert Award for Space Exploration |date=February 19, 2009 |access-date=December 5, 2022 |publisher=The Space Foundation |archive-date=December 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205194102/https://www.spacefoundation.org/2009/02/19/the-phoenix-mars-lander-team-wins-2009-jack-swigert-award-for-space-exploration/ |url-status=live }}</ref>), 2006 and 2005.
Line 97 ⟶ 99:
The JPL Education Office also hosts the Planetary Science Summer School (PSSS), an annual week-long workshop for graduate and postdoctoral students. The program involves a one-week team design exercise developing an early mission concept study, working with JPL's Advanced Projects Design Team ("Team X") and other concurrent engineering teams.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pscischool.jpl.nasa.gov/ |title=Planetary Science Summer School |access-date=May 14, 2008 |archive-date=March 20, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320184346/https://pscischool.jpl.nasa.gov/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
===Museum & Informal Education Alliance Alliance===
JPL created the NASA Museum Alliance in 2003 out of a desire to provide museums, planetariums, visitor centers and other kinds of informal educators with exhibit materials, professional development and information related to the then-upcoming landings of the [[Mars rover]]s ''[[Spirit (rover)|Spirit]]'' and ''[[Opportunity (rover)|Opportunity]]''.<ref>{{cite web |author=Jpl.Nasa.Gov |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/education/museum_alliance.cfm |title=JPL Education – NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory |publisher=Jpl.nasa.gov |date=2012-05-23 |access-date=2014-04-30 |archive-date=2015-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150401173734/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/education/museum_alliance.cfm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Alliance now has more than 500 members, who get access to NASA displays, models, educational workshops and networking opportunities through the program. Staff at educational organizations that meet the Museum Alliance requirements can register to participate online.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://informal.jpl.nasa.gov/museum/Joining/index.cfm |title=About Us &#124; Museum Alliance |publisher=Informal.jpl.nasa.gov |access-date=2014-04-30 |archive-date=2013-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214190815/https://informal.jpl.nasa.gov/museum/Joining/index.cfm |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
The Museum Alliance is a subset of the JPL Education Office's Informal Education group, which also serves after-school and summer programs, parents and other kinds of informal educators.<ref>{{cite web |author=Jpl.Nasa.Gov |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/education/informal/ |title=Inspire – JPL Education – NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory |publisher=Jpl.nasa.gov |access-date=2014-04-30 |archive-date=2015-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704002026/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/education/informal/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
 
On [https://icont.ac/50Ted December 9, 2020], the Museum Alliance officially announced a rebrand to the Museum & Informal Education (MIE) Alliance. In an announcement to members, they said, "Pronounced 'My' Alliance, our new name better reflects the diversity of organizations you represent."
 
===Educator Resource Center===
Line 107 ⟶ 111:
==Open house==
[[File:2007 jpl open house.jpg|left|thumb|upright|A display at the May 19, 2007 Open House]]
The lab had an open house once a year on a Saturday and Sunday in May or June, when the public was invited to tour the facilities and see live demonstrations of JPL science and technology. More limited private tours are also available throughout the year if scheduled well in advance. Thousands of schoolchildren from Southern California and elsewhere visit the lab every year.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/events/open-house.cfm |title=JPL Open House |website=Jet Propulsion Laboratory |access-date=January 2, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090118022750/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/events/open-house.cfm |archive-date=January 18, 2009}}</ref> Due to federal spending cuts mandated by [[budget sequestration]], the open house has been previously cancelled.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://losangeles.cbslocal.com/2013/04/22/open-house-at-jpl-closed-to-public-over-sequestration/ |title=Open House At JPL Closed To Public Over Sequestration " CBS Los Angeles |publisher=Losangeles.cbslocal.com |date=2013-04-22 |access-date=2014-04-30 |archive-date=2014-05-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501103348/http://losangeles.cbslocal.com/2013/04/22/open-house-at-jpl-closed-to-public-over-sequestration/ |url-status=live }}</ref> JPL open house for 2014 was October 11 and 12 and 2015 was October 10 and 11. Starting from 2016, JPL replaced the annual Open House with "Ticket to Explore JPL", which features the same exhibits but requires tickets and advance reservation.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/events/2016/4/25/ticket-to-explore-jpl/ |title=Ticket to Explore JPL Public Events'' |website=Jet Propulsion Laboratory |access-date=2016-06-24 |archive-date=2016-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629174259/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/events/2016/4/25/ticket-to-explore-jpl |url-status=live }}</ref> Roboticist and Mars rover driver [[Vandi Verma]] frequently acts as [[science communicator]] at open house type events to encourage children (and particularly girls) into [[Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics|STEM]] careers.<ref name="mltv2019">{{cite web |title=Vandi Tompkins talk to the Mars Lab |url=https://youtube.com/watch?v=U5bQNoeITO0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/U5bQNoeITO0 |archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live |website=Mars Lab TV (on YouTube) | date=August 7, 2014 |time=19'45 |access-date=8 February 2019}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Siders |first1=Jennifer Torres |title=Women from JPL, which is managed for NASA by Caltech, address high school students. Prospective Applicants Explore Opportunities for Women at Caltech |url=http://www.caltech.edu/news/prospective-applicants-explore-opportunities-women-caltech-79367 |website=Caltech |date=15 August 2017 |access-date=8 February 2019 |archive-date=9 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190209180114/http://www.caltech.edu/news/prospective-applicants-explore-opportunities-women-caltech-79367 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="twig2019">{{cite web |title=Life on Mars |url=https://twigeducation.com/blog/life-on-mars/ |website=Twig Education |access-date=8 February 2019 |date=2017-06-06 |archive-date=2018-05-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180519203015/http://www.twigeducation.com/blog/life-on-mars/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
==Other works==
Line 117 ⟶ 121:
 
==Funding==
The predominant source of JPL's financial support is NASA.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dunbar |first=Brian |date=2015-01-27 |title=Budget Documents, Strategic Plans and Performance Reports |url=http://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html |access-date=2023-08-22 |website=NASA |archive-date=December 21, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101221004158/http://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> As a field center of NASA, JPL's primary activities and projects are generally aligned with NASA's mission objectives in space exploration, Earth sciences, and astrophysics. The funding allocated to JPL comes as a portion of NASA's annual budget, which is itself part of the United States federal budget approved by Congress.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GovInfo |url=https://www.govinfo.gov/app/collection/budget/2022 |access-date=2023-08-22 |website=www.govinfo.gov |language=en |archive-date=July 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724161423/https://www.govinfo.gov/app/collection/budget/2022 |url-status=live }}</ref> The scale of the budget is contingent on the projects that JPL undertakes as missions can range from flagship interplanetary missions costing billions of U.S. dollars to smaller Earth observation systems with budgets in the hundreds of millions.
 
Aside from NASA, JPL secures funding for specialized projects from other federal agencies, including but not limited to the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] (NOAA) the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS), and the U.S. [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] (DoD).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Funding Opportunities & Funded Projects |url=https://cpo.noaa.gov/Divisions-Programs/Earth-System-Science-and-Modeling/Modeling-Analysis-Predictions-and-Projections-MAPP/Funding-Opportunities-Funded-Projects/udt_6297_param_page/7/udt_6297_param_orderby/Year_x0020_Initially_x0020_Funded/udt_6297_param_direction/ascending |access-date=2023-08-22 |website=cpo.noaa.gov |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822030214/https://cpo.noaa.gov/Divisions-Programs/Earth-System-Science-and-Modeling/Modeling-Analysis-Predictions-and-Projections-MAPP/Funding-Opportunities-Funded-Projects/udt_6297_param_page/7/udt_6297_param_orderby/Year_x0020_Initially_x0020_Funded/udt_6297_param_direction/ascending |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=NASA, USGS Map Minerals to Understand Earth Makeup, Climate Change |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-usgs-map-minerals-to-understand-earth-makeup-climate-change |access-date=2023-08-22 |website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) |language=en-US |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822030214/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-usgs-map-minerals-to-understand-earth-makeup-climate-change |url-status=live }}</ref> Occasionally, JPL engages in joint missions or research endeavors with international space agencies or research institutions. While these partnerships contribute a relatively small portion of JPL's overall budget, they serve to enhance the scope and impact of its scientific research and technological development.
 
The total budget for JPL is subject to annual fluctuations based on both the federal allocation to NASA and the life cycle of ongoing projects. High-profile missions may receive significant long-term funding commitments, whereas smaller or shorter-term projects may have more modest financial support. These agencies often commission projects that leverage JPL's unique expertise in areas like [[remote sensing]], robotics, and systems engineering. Although these projects form a smaller part of JPL's overall budget, they are integral to fulfilling the diverse set of objectives that these federal agencies oversee.
 
In fiscal year 2022, the laboratory's budget was approximately $2.4 billion, with the largest share going to EarthPlanetary Science and Technology development.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=JPL Annual Reports |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/who-we-are/jpl-annual-reports |access-date=2023-08-22 |website=NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) |language=en-US |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822030217/https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/who-we-are/jpl-annual-reports |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
==Peanuts tradition==
Line 194 ⟶ 198:
On August 30, 2007, a group of JPL employees filed suit in federal court against NASA, Caltech, and the Department of Commerce, claiming their constitutional rights were being violated by the new, overly invasive background investigations.<ref>[http://hspd12jpl.org Overview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103075529/http://hspd12jpl.org/ |date=2008-01-03 }}. HSPD12 JPL. Retrieved on 2013-07-21.</ref> 97% of JPL employees were classified at the low-risk level and would be subjected to the same clearance procedures as those obtaining moderate/high risk clearance. Under HSPD 12 and FIPS 201, investigators have the right to obtain any information on employees, which includes questioning acquaintances on the status of the employee's mental, emotional, and financial stability. Additionally, if employees depart JPL before the end of the two-year validity of the background check, no investigation ability is terminated; former employees can still be legally monitored.
 
Employees were told that if they did not sign an unlimited waiver of privacy,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hspd12jpl.org/files/sf85.pdf |title=Questionnaire for Non-Sensitive Positions |author=US Office of Personnel Management |access-date=August 26, 2010 |archive-date=January 18, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110118195900/http://hspd12jpl.org/files/sf85.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> they would be deemed to have "voluntarily resigned".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hspd12jpl.org/files/Declaration_of_Cozette_Hart.pdf |title=Declaration of Cozette Hart, JPL Human Resources Director |date=October 1, 2007 |access-date=August 26, 2010 |archive-date=July 26, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726160928/http://hspd12jpl.org/files/Declaration_of_Cozette_Hart.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]] found the process violated the employees' privacy rights and issued a preliminary injunction.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hspd12jpl.org/files/Order_01_11_08.pdf |title=Nelson v. NASA – Preliminary Injunction issued by the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit |date=Jan 11, 2008 |access-date=August 26, 2010 |archive-date=July 26, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726160949/http://hspd12jpl.org/files/Order_01_11_08.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> NASA appealed and the US Supreme Court granted [[certiorari]] on March 8, 2010. On January 19, 2011, the Supreme Court overturned the Ninth Circuit decision, ruling that the background checks did not violate any constitutional privacy right that the employees may have had.<ref>{{cite court |opinion=No. 09-530 |court=U.S. |date=January 19, 2011 |litigants=National Aeronautics and Space Administration et al. v. Nelson et al. |url=https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/10pdf/09-530.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810074442/https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/10pdf/09-530.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
 
===''Coppedge v Jet Propulsion Laboratory''===
 
On March 12, 2012, the [[Los Angeles Superior Court]] took opening statements on the case in which former JPL employee David Coppedge brought suit against the lab due to workplace discrimination and wrongful termination. In the suit, Coppedge alleges that he first lost his "team lead" status on JPL's ''[[Cassini-Huygens]]'' mission in 2009 and then was fired in 2011 because of his evangelical Christian beliefs and specifically his belief in [[intelligent design]]. Conversely, JPL, through the [[Caltech]] lawyers representing the laboratory, allege that Coppedge's termination was simply due to budget cuts and his demotion from team lead was because of harassment complaints and from on-going conflicts with his co-workers.<ref>{{cite news |url=httphttps://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2012/03/11science/former-nasa-specialist-claims-he-was-fired-over-intelligent-design |work=Fox News |title=Former NASA specialist claims he was fired over intelligent design |date=March 11, 2012 |access-date=March 12, 2012 |archive-date=March 12, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312142641/http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2012/03/11/former-nasa-specialist-claims-was-fired-over-intelligent-design/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Superior Court Judge Ernest Hiroshige issued a final ruling in favor of JPL on January 16, 2013.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.lacanadaonline.com/2013-01-17/news/tn-818-0117-judge-confirms-earlier-ruling-sides-with-jpl-in-intelligent-design-case_1_david-coppedge-james-zapp-jpl-attorneys |work=La Canada Valley Sun |title=Judge confirms earlier ruling, sides with JPL in 'intelligent design' case |date=January 17, 2013 |access-date=2013-01-21 |archive-date=2013-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123010444/http://articles.lacanadaonline.com/2013-01-17/news/tn-818-0117-judge-confirms-earlier-ruling-sides-with-jpl-in-intelligent-design-case_1_david-coppedge-james-zapp-jpl-attorneys |url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
==Gallery==
 
<gallery mode=packed heights=250px>
{{Gallery
Image:Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena CA (21030091981).jpg|A 2015 photo of JPL from above
|width=200
 
|Image:Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena CA (21030091981).jpg|A 2015 photo of JPL from above|Image:Human computers - a computer in the control room at JPL tracks Mariner 2 - reached Venus in 1962.jpg|Human computers in the control room at JPL tracking [[Mariner 2]]|Image:Galileo in JPL's High Bay 1 (PIA23616).jpg|[[Galileo|Galileo (spacecraft)]] in JPL's High Bay
|Image:Spacecraft Assembly Room @ JPL (19322114182).jpg|Spacecraft assembly room at JPL▼
 
|Image:JPL aerodynamic noise facility 383-5765ac.jpg|Aerodynamic noise facility at JPL ({{circa|1970}})▼
Image:Galileo in JPL's High Bay 1 (PIA23616).jpg|[[Galileo (spacecraft)|''Galileo'' spacecraft]] in JPL's High Bay
|Image:JPL Pneumatic cannon used in impact testing 355-1387bc.jpg|Pneumatic cannon in JPL's impact testing facility▼
 
|Image:NASA Perseverance Rover Lands on Mars (NHQ202102180066).jpg|JPL employees celebrate the landing of the [[Perseverance rover]] in JPL's mission control|Image:PIA23923-MarsPerseveranceRover-TeamMembers-20190717.jpg|Mars [[Perseverance rover]] team in front of JPL's administration building}}▼
▲|Image:Spacecraft Assembly Room @ JPL (19322114182).jpg|Spacecraft assembly room at JPL
 
▲|Image:JPL aerodynamic noise facility 383-5765ac.jpg|Aerodynamic noise facility at JPL ({{circa|1970}})
 
▲|Image:JPL Pneumatic cannon used in impact testing 355-1387bc.jpg|Pneumatic cannon in JPL's impact testing facility
 
▲|Image:NASA Perseverance Rover Lands on Mars (NHQ202102180066).jpg|JPL employees celebrate the landing of the [[Perseverance rover]] in JPL's mission control|Image:PIA23923-MarsPerseveranceRover-TeamMembers-20190717.jpg|Mars [[Perseverance rover]] team in front of JPL's administration building}}
 
Image:PIA23923-MarsPerseveranceRover-TeamMembers-20190717.jpg|Mars [[Perseverance rover]] team in front of JPL's administration building
</gallery>
 
==References==
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory"