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{{Short description|Hindu philosophical concept}}
{{Forredirect|Aksara|the Javanese script known as '''Aksara''' or '''Hanacaraka'''|Javanese script}}
{{Hinduism}}
'''Akshara''' ({{langx|sa|अक्षर|translit=akṣara|translit-std=IAST|lit=imperishable, indestructible, fixed, immutable}}) is a term used in the [[Vyākaraṇa|traditional grammar]] of the [[Sanskrit language]] and in the [[Vedanta]] school of [[Indian philosophy]].
'''Aksara''' (also ''akshara'', [[Devanagari]] अक्षर, [[IAST]] ''akṣara'') is a [[Sanskrit]] term translating to "imperishable, indestructible, fixed, immutable" (i.e. from अ, ''[[Privative a|a-]]'' "not" and क्षर्, ''kṣar-'' "melt away, perish").
 
The term is derived from अ, ''[[Privative a|a-]]'' "not" and क्षर्, ''kṣar-'' "melt away, perish". The uniting aspect of theseits usesuse is the mystical view of language, or ''[[shabda]]'', in Hindu tradition, and especially the notion of the ''syllable'' as a kind of immutable (or "atomic") substance of both language and truth, most prominently, the mystical syllable [[Om|Aum]], which is given the name of ''ekākṣara'' (i.e. ''eka-akṣara''), which can be translated as both "the sole imperishable thing" and as "a single syllable".▼
It has two main fields of application, in [[Vyākaraṇa|Sanskrit grammatical tradition]] ([[śikṣā]]) and in [[Vedanta philosophy]].
▲The uniting aspect of these uses is the mystical view of language, or [[shabda]], in Hindu tradition, and especially the notion of the ''syllable'' as a kind of immutable (or "atomic") substance of both language and truth, most prominently, the mystical syllable [[Om|Aum]], which is given the name of ''ekākṣara'' (i.e. ''eka-akṣara''), which can be translated as both "the sole imperishable thing" and as "a single syllable".
In the explicitly [[monotheistic]] tradition of [[Bhakti yoga]], both ''akṣara'' and ''aum'' become seen as a symbol or [[name of God]].
 
==Grammatical tradition==
{{further|Shiksha#Sound and alphabet}}
The akshara is the unit of graphemic symbols in the [[Brahmic scripts]]. An akshara is more a syllable-like unit for writing which requires the knowledge of syllables and the ''matra'', i.e. the measure of prosodic marking. In writing it prototypically stands for CV, CVV, CCV, CCVV, CCCV, CCCVV, V and VV where "C" stands for a consonant, "V" for a vowel and "VV" for a long vowel. It is usually a sub-syllabic representation which stands for [[Onset (linguistics)|onset]], onset plus [[Nucleus (linguistics)|nucleus]] and nucleus alone; the [[Coda (linguistics)|coda]] part of a syllable goes into the next akshara in a word.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Joshi |first1=R. Malatesha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n_ecDwAAQBAJ&dq=akshara+brahmic+script&pg=PA46 |title=Handbook of Literacy in Akshara Orthography |last2=McBride |first2=Catherine |date=2019-06-11 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-05977-4 |pages=46 |language=en}}</ref>
It is usually a sub-syllabic representation which stands for onset, onset plus nucleus and nucleus alone; the coda part of a syllable goes into the next akshara in a word.
 
Its nature favours the phonological mediation i.e. the non-lexical strategy of reading, which may be interpreted in stages such as the "Visual Analysis System" and proceeding to the "Aksara Recognition System" and then to the "Aksara sound Conversion System" and the "Phonological Assembly System" before ending with the "Response Buffer" prior to reading aloud.{{clarify|date=March 2013}}{{dubious|date=March 2013}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Psychology in India Vol.1|author=Misra|date=September 2009|publisher=Pearson Education India|page=125|isbn=9788131717448|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=_Fy0hsJKA0YC&q=Aksara&pg=PA125}}</ref>
 
==Vedanta==
As part of basic instructions of [[Shiksha]] and [[Vyākaraṇa|Sanskrit grammar]], it is explained that among the Word-entities, both, Aksara and [[Brahman]] stand out as especially important because both refer to a special form of ritual word. In the [[Brahmanas]] and the [[Upanishads]] both come to mean the Absolute. Aksara is a part of the Sacred Word "Om" and possesses a unique and intensified power and dignity. In the Upanishads, in a condensed and intensified form, it signifies the transcendent Principle of all that exists. Its significance is derived from its role as a "syllable", the essential and embryonic core of speech.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |author=Arij A.Roest Crollius |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=st7fbeSCsxwC&q=Aksara&pg=PA185 |title=Word in Experience |publisher=Gregorian Biblical Workshop |year=1974 |isbn=9788876524752 |pages=183–5}}</ref>
 
=== Brihadaranyaka Upanishad ===
===Aum===
The eighth brahmana of the [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]] focuses on the concept of the imperishable (akshara). Verse 3.8.8-9 describe ''akshara'' having certain qualities. It is neither physical nor subtle, and it is not defined by physical characteristics such as size, length, or physical traits like blood or fat. It exists beyond shadows, darkness, air, and space, untouched by sensory experiences like taste, smell, sight, or hearing. It does not possess attributes like speech, mind, energy, breath, and form. ''Akshara'' is immeasurable, existing without internal or external elements, and is neither a consumer nor consumed. ''Akshara'' governs the universe and influences various aspects of existence including the sun, moon, earth, sky, time, rivers, human behavior, and the dependence of gods and ancestors on ritual offerings.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paul Deussen |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.191073 |title=Sixty Upanisads Of The Veda -part- Ist |date=1905 |pages=463}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/TheEarlyUpanisads |title=The Early Upaniṣads in Sanskrit and English Parallel Texts |pages=91}}</ref> Verse 3.8.10 emphasizes the significance of understanding this imperishable:<ref name=":1" />
{{main|Om}}
As part of basic instructions of [[Shiksha]] and [[Vyākaraṇa|Sanskrit grammar]], it is explained that among the Word-entities, both, Aksara and [[Brahman]] stand out as especially important because both refer to a special form of ritual word. In the [[Brahmanas]] and the [[Upanishads]] both come to mean the Absolute.
 
{{Quote|text=Without knowing this imperishable, Gargi, even if a man were to make offerings, to offer sacrifices, and to perform austerities in this world for many thousands of years, all that would come to naught. Pitiful is the man, Gargi, who departs from this world without knowing this imperishable.|author=Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 3, Brahmanam 8, Hymn 10}}
Vedantic philosophy identified the ''aum'' syllable as alluded to in various concepts going back to the [[Rigveda]], such as the concept of the "word" or "[[speech|vāc]]" (e.g. [[Mandala 1|RV 1]].55.1) or inspiration (1.34.4, [[Mandala 8|8]].36.7).{{citation needed|date=March 2013}}
"It is the recipient of power and the dignity of the sacred word in a condensated and intensified degree, and as the essence and embryo of speech receives, more than the word itself the signification of transcendent [[Brahman]]"{{clarify|date=March 2013}}.<ref>{{cite book|title=Word in Experience|author=Arij A.Roest Crollius|year=1974|publisher=Gregorian Biblical Workshop|pages=184–5|isbn=9788876524752|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=st7fbeSCsxwC&q=Aksara&pg=PA185}}</ref>
In the Rigveda itself, ''akṣára'' does occur, but it is used as a name of "[[Ap (water)|water]]" (RV 1.34.4, 1.164.42).
 
===Manduka Upanishad===
The [[Mandukya Upanishad|Manduka Upanishad]] partitions the symbol [[Om|Aum]] in three different morae and adds a fourth mora-less part instructing that the mora-less part alone is ultimately real and not the other three representing "wakefulness", "dream" and the "sleep" states of consciousness. The mora-less part of Aum has correspondence with the fourth dimension of metaphysics, the [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]].<ref>{{cite book|title=A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy|author=Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade|author-link=Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade|year=1968|publisher=[[Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan]]|place=Mumbai|page=246|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sE8pAAAAYAAJ&q=A+constructive+survey+of+Upanishadic+philosophy}}</ref> [[Madhavananda]] in his commentary on the Brahmopanishad belonging to the [[Atharvaveda]], explains that vide [[Mundaka Upanishad]] I.7 and II.1-2 the term Aksara signifies [[Brahman]] in Its aspect of the manifesting principle who [[Pippalada]] says is the thread ([[Sutram]]) to be worn instead of the sacrificial thread on the body which should be discarded.<ref>{{cite book|title=Minor Upanishads|author=Swami Madhavananda|author-link=Madhavananda|publisher=[[Advaita Ashrama]]|page=11|url= https://www.advaitaashrama.org/Book/Detail/215}}</ref>
 
=== Mundaka Upanishad ===
In ''[[Mundaka Upanishad]]'' verses 1.1.3-7, Aksara is discussed in the context of the higher knowledge. The lower knowledge (''apara vidya'') includes knowledge of four Vedas, phonetics, grammar, etymology, meter, astrology, and the knowledge of sacrifices and rituals.<ref name="roberthume21">{{Cite book |last=Robert Ernest Hume |url=http://archive.org/details/thirteenprincipa028442mbp |title=The Thirteen Principal Upanishads |date=1921 |publisher=Oxford University Press |others=Universal Digital Library}}</ref> The higher knowledge (''[[Para Vidya|para vidya]]'') is the means by which one can comprehend the imperishable (Aksara, Brahman).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paul Deussen |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.191073 |title=Sixty Upanisads Of The Veda -part- Ist |date=1905 |pages=572}}</ref>
 
{{Quote|text=But the higher knowledge is that through which that imperishable one (aksaram) is known|author=Mundaka Upanishad, 1.1.5}}
 
[[Madhavananda]], in his commentary on the Brahmopanishad belonging to the [[Atharvaveda]], explains that, as per the Mundaka Upanishad I.7 and II.1-2, the term Aksara signifies [[Brahman]] in Its aspect of the manifesting principle. [[Pippalada]] suggests that this manifesting Brahman is the thread ([[Sutram]]) to be worn instead of the sacrificial thread on the body which should be discarded.<ref>{{cite book|title=Minor Upanishads|author=Swami Madhavananda|author-link=Madhavananda|publisher=[[Advaita Ashrama]]|page=11|url=https://www.advaitaashrama.org/Book/Detail/215|access-date=2013-02-17|archive-date=2018-07-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180727084701/https://www.advaitaashrama.org/Book/Detail/215|url-status=dead}}</ref>
 
===Bhagavad Gita===
 
According to the adherents of the [[Smrti]]s, the practitioners of the [[Bhakti yoga]], Aksara means one who is present everywhere, denotes the name of [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]], and also that of [[Brahman]], literally it means imperishable, indestructible. And,Every becauseritual itand fire offering detailed in the Veda is impermanent. In contrast, the term applied to [[Om|Aum]] itremains everlasting and is called the Aksara, the symbol of God, who is the lord of all created things. It is a descriptive synonym of Brahman ([[Bhagavad Gita]] VIII.3), who is said to have arisen from Aksara ([[Bhagavad Gita]] III.15).<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World:Ak-Aq|author=Ganga Ram Garg|year=1992|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|pages=308–9|isbn=9788170223757|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WjDcd0cTFxQC&pg=PA309}}</ref>
 
With regard to [[Vallabha]]’s view of Aum it is said that Aksara itself is imperishable and appears as souls endowed with [[Sat (Sanskrit)|Sat]] and ''Chit'' but not as [[Paramananda (Hinduism)|Ananda]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Bhagavad Gita:Translation and Commentary|author=Veeraswamy Krishnaraj|year=2002|publisher=iUniverse|page=387|isbn=9780595226788|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wI4lNMh50XgC&pg=PA387}}</ref> For Vallabha, Ananda, which is the first manifestation of God, is the actualisation of the absolute identity and selfness, whereas the second manifestation of God is the Aksara, the impersonal ground from which all determinations arise because it is the substratum of all finite forms that pre-exist but issue forth from it which though by itself is the intermediate form that lacks plenitude.<ref>{{cite book|title=Synthesizing the Vedanta:The Theory of Johanns Sj|year=2006|publisher=Peter Lang|page=246|isbn=9783039107087|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=-S7DJLnkwG4C&pg=PA246}}</ref>
 
In verses 15.16 and 15.17, [[Purushottama|Purushottam]] is explained as being above kshar and akshar. There are two types of beings within the world: kshar and akshar. All those bound by maya are kshar, whereas the one who is unchanging - forever beyond maya - is akshar. The supreme being is distinct from kshar and akshar. He is called [[Paramatman]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Paramtattvadas |first=Sadhu |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107158672 |title=An introduction to Swaminarayan Hindu theology |last2=Paramtattvadas |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-15867-2 |location=New York |pages=168}}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}
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[[Category:Vedanta]]
[[Category:Sanskrit grammar]]
[[Category:Sanskrit words and phrases]]
[[Category:Yoga]]
[[Category:Orthography]]
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