Yurok language

Concerning the etymology of Yurok (a.k.a. Weitspekan), this below is from Campbell (1997):

Yurok is from Karuk yúruk meaning literally 'downriver'. The Yurok traditional name for themselves is Puliklah (Hinton 1994:157), from pulik 'downstream' + -la 'people of', thus equivalent in meaning to the Karuk name by which they came to be known in English (Victor Golla, personal communication).(Campbell 1997:401, notes #131 & 132)

Decline of the language began during the California Gold Rush, due to the influx of new settlers and the diseases they brought with them and Native American boarding schools initiated by the United States government with the intent of incorporating the native populations of America into mainstream American society increased the rate of decline of the language.^[5]

The program to revive Yurok has been lauded as the most successful language revitalization program in California.^[6] As of 2014, there are six schools in Northern California that teach Yurok - four high schools and two elementary schools. Rick Jordan, principal of Eureka High School, one of the schools with a Yurok Language Program, remarks on the impact that schools can have on the vitality of a language, "A hundred years ago, it was our organizations that were beating the language out of folks, and now we're trying to re-instill it – a little piece of something that is much larger than us".^[7]

The last known native, active speaker of Yurok, Archie Thompson, died March 26, 2013. "He was also the last of about 20 elders who helped revitalize the language over the last few decades, after academics in the 1990s predicted it would be extinct by 2010. He made recordings of the language that were archived by UC Berkeley linguists and the tribe, spent hours helping to teach Yurok in community and school classrooms, and welcomed apprentice speakers to probe his knowledge."^[1]

Linguists at UC Berkeley began the Yurok Language Project in 2001. Professor Andrew Garrett and Dr. Juliette Blevins collaborated with tribal elders on a Yurok dictionary that has been hailed as a national model.^[6] The Yurok Language Project has gone much more in depth than just a printed lexicon, however. The dictionary is available online and fully searchable. It is also possible to search an audio dictionary – a repository of audio clips of words and short phrases. For a more in-depth study, there is a database of compiled texts where words and phrases can be viewed as part of a larger context.^[8]

As of February 2013, there are over 300 basic Yurok speakers, 60 with intermediate skills, 37 who are advanced, and 17 who are considered conversationally fluent.^[6] As of 2014, nine people are certified to teach Yurok in schools. Since Yurok, like many other Native American languages, uses a master-apprentice system to train up speakers in the language, having even nine certified teachers would not be possible without a piece of legislation passed in 2009 in the state of California that allows indigenous tribes the power to appoint their own language teachers.^[7]

Vowels are as follows:^[9][10]

Consonants are as follows:^[11]

Notable is the lack of plain /s/.

Yurok has an anticipatory vowel harmony system where underlying non-high vowels /a/, /e/, and /ɔ/ are realized as [ɚ] if they precede an /ɚ/.^[12]

Yurok has front-, central-, and back-closing diphthongs. The second element of the diphthongs is considered a consonant or semivowel. This is because Yurok diphthongs are falling diphthongs and behave similarly to nasal and approximates following a vowel and preceding a pause or voiceless non-glottalized consonant.^[4]

All Yurok syllables begin with a consonant and contain at least one vowel. Here are some examples of the different kinds of syllable structure:^[4]

V:V can only be /oːo/ or /uːu/ and is signaled by a change in pitch between the vowels.

 

As of 2020, Yurok is written in the New Yurok Alphabet, using Latin characters. Previously, Yurok was written in the Yurok Unifon; some books cited in the Yurok Language Project contain Yurok written in the Unifon script, though due to practicality in writing, typing, and reading, the Latin characters are now preferred. Currently, there is a spelling reform occurring to streamline the spelling of words; thus, some letters may differ between spellings. Currently, this is the alphabet as taught at various schools.^{[citation needed][further explanation needed]}

• A a /a/ (as in lap-sew /lapʂej/)
• Aa aa /aː/ (as in aa-wok /aːwɔk/)
• Aw aw /aw/ (as in tee'-naw /tiːʔnaw/)
• Ay/Aiy ay/aiy /aj/ (as in aiy'-ye-kweee /ajʔjekʷiː/. Spelling is currently being reformed.)
• Ch ch /t͡ʃ/ (as in chee-mos /t͡ʃimɔʂ/)
• Ch' ch' /t͡ʃʼ/ (as in ch'-ee-shah /t͡ʃ‘iʃah/)
• E e /e/ (as in ne-chek /net͡ʃek/)
• Ee ee /i/ (as in chee-nos /t͡ʃinɔʂ/)
• Eee eee /iː/ (as in cheeek /t͡ʃiːk/)
• Er er /ɚ/ (as in er-plers /ɚplɚʂ/)
• Err err /ɚː/ (as in errhl-ker /ɚːɬkɚ/)
• Ery ery /ɚj/ (as in cher'-ery /t͡ʃɚʔɚj/)
• Erw erw /ɚw/ (as in mer-terw /mɚtɚw/)
• Ew ew /ew/ (as in pop-sew /pɔpʂew/)
• Ey ey /ej/ (as in ey-lekw /ejlekʷ/)
• Eyr eyr /ejɻ/ (as in neyr-es /nejɻeʂ/)
• G g /ɣ/ (as in pey-gerk /pejɣɚk/)
• H h /h/ (as in herhl-ker /hɚɬkɚ/)
• Hl hl /ɬ/ (as in hlkehl /ɬkeɬ/)
• K k /k/ (as in ne'-kue-chos /neʔkut͡ʃɔʂ/)
• K' k' /kʼ/ (as in k'-ooy /k’ɔːj/)
• Kw kw /kʷ~kʷ’/ (as in kwerhl /kʷɚɬ/)
• L l /l~ˀl/ (as in lo-chom' /lɔt͡ʃɔmʔ/)
• M m /m~ˀm/ (as in mey-wo /mejwɔ/)
• N n /n~ˀn/ (as in neyp-sech /nejpʂet͡ʃ/)
• O o /ɔ/ (as in ohl-kuem /ɔɬkum/)
• Oo oo /ɔː/ (as in oohl /ɔːɬ/)
• Ow /ɔw/ (as in kow-wey /kɔwwej/)
• Owr /ɔwɻ/ (as in mey-wee-mowr /mejwimɔwɻ/)
• Oy oy /ɔj/ (as in koy-poh /kɔjpɔh/)
• P p /p/ (as in ple-tew /pletew/)
• P' p' /pʼ/ (as in plop' /plɔp’/)
• R r /ɻ~ˀɻ/ (as in rek'-woy /ɻekʷ’ɔj/)
• S s /ʂ/ (as in sa-'ahl /ʂaʔaɬ/)
• Sh sh /ʃ/ (as in pre-go-neesh /pɻeɣɔniʃ/)
• T t /t/ (as in te-seer /tesɚ/)
• T' t' /tʼ/ (as in t'ot-'ohl /t’ɔt’oɬ/)
• Ue ue /u/ (as in wo-nue /wɔnu/)
• Uue uue /uː/ (as in chuue' /t͡ʃuː/)
• Uy uy /uj/ (as in ne-puy /nepuj/)
• W w /w~ˀw/ (as in wo-news-le-pah /wɔnewʂlepah/)
• X x /x/ (as in 'wa-'a-lox /ʔwaʔalɔx/)
• Y y /j~ˀj/ (as in ye-gom /yeɣɔm/)
• ' /ʔ/ (as in chpok-sek' /t͡ʃpɔkʂekʔ/)

Some books have been written partially in Yurok. One such example is the graphic novel Soldiers Unknown,^[13] written by Chag Lowry.^[14] The Yurok text in Soldiers Unknown was translated by Yurok language teacher James Gensaw, and the graphic novel was illustrated by Rahsan Ekedal.

Yurok morphological processes include prefixation, infixation, inflection, vowel harmony, ablaut, consonantal alternation,^{[clarification needed]} and reduplication.^[4]

Prefixation and infixation occur in nominals and verbals, and occasionally in other classes, although infixation occurs most frequently in verbals.

Vowel harmony occurs for prefixes, infixes, and inflections, depending on the vocalic and consonantal structure of the word stem. Internal vocalic alternation involves three alternating pairs: /e/~/i/, /e/~/iʔi/, /e/~/u/.

Reduplication occurs mostly on verb stems but occasionally for nouns and can connote repetition, plurality, etc. Reduplication occurs on the first syllable, and sometimes a part of the second syllable:

Numerals and adjectives can be classified according to the noun grammatically associated with them.^[15]

As in many indigenous languages of the Americas, Yurok verbs do not code tense through inflection. The time when an action takes place is inferred through both linguistic and nonlinguistic context.

On the other hand, aspect is prevalent in Yurok verbs, being indicated by preverbal particles. These occur either directly or indirectly before a verb. These can combine with verbs and other particles to indicate time and many other aspects.

Some preverbal particles include: ho (completed action in the past); kic (past but with ongoing effects); wo (past after a negative, or in "unreal conditions"); ?ap (past with the implication of starting some action).^[16]

The most common form of sentence structure consists of a Nominal + Verbal. Indeed, most other, seemingly more complex sentence structures can be viewed as expanding on this fundamental type.^[17]

Sentences can also be equational, consisting of two nominals or nominal groups:

Sentences can also be composed of one or more verbals without nominals as explicit arguments.

The same is true for nominals and nominal groups, which can stand alone as complete sentences, following a similar pattern to the equational sentences already mentioned.

Complex sentences are formed along similar principles to these, but with expanded verbals or nominals, or verbals and/or nominals connected by coordinators.

Word order is sometimes used to distinguish between the categories of subject and object.

However, if the morphological inflections are sufficiently unambiguous, it is not necessary to maintain a strict word order.

In the sentences composed of a subject and a verb, the two are often interchangeable.

• Atherton, Kelley (October 16, 2010). "Back from the Brink: Learning the Yurok Language". The Daily Triplicate. Archived from the original on December 13, 2012. Retrieved April 30, 2012.
• Blevins, Juliette (2003). "The phonology of Yurok glottalized sonorants: Segmental fission under syllabification". International Journal of American Linguistics. 69 (4): 371–396. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.494.4389. doi:10.1086/382738. S2CID 14886779.
• Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Dixon, Roland; Kroeber, Alfred L. (1913). "New linguistic families in California". American Anthropologist. 5: 1–26. doi:10.1525/aa.1903.5.1.02a00020.
• Goddard, Ives (1975). "Algonquian, Wiyot, and Yurok: Proving a distant genetic relationship". In Kinkade, M. D.; Hale, K. L.; Werner, O. (eds.). Linguistics and anthropology in honor of C. F. Voegelin. Lisse: Peter de Ridder Press. pp. 249–262.
• Goddard, Ives (1979). "Comparative Algonquian". In Campbell, L.; Mithun, M. (eds.). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 70–132.
• Goddard, Ives (1990). "Algonquian linguistic change and reconstruction". In Baldi, P. (ed.). Linguistic change and reconstruction methodology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 99–114.
• Golla, Victor (2011). California Indian Languages. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26667-4.
• Haas, Mary R. (1958). "Algonkian-Ritwan: The end of a controversy". International Journal of American Linguistics. 24 (3): 159–173. doi:10.1086/464453.
• Hinton, Leanne (1994). Flutes of fire: Essays on Californian Indian languages. Berkeley: Heyday Books.
• Michelson, Truman (1914). "Two alleged Algonquian languages of California". American Anthropologist. 16 (2): 361–367. doi:10.1525/aa.1914.16.2.02a00150. JSTOR 659619.
• Michelson, Truman (1915). "Rejoinder (to Edward Sapir)". American Anthropologist. 17: 4–8.
• Mithun, Marianne (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7.
• Robins, Robert H (1958). The Yurok Language: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon. University of California Publications in Linguistics. Vol. 15. University of California Press.
• Sapir, Edward (1913). "Wiyot and Yurok, Algonkin languages of California". American Anthropologist. 15 (4): 617–646. doi:10.1525/aa.1913.15.4.02a00040. JSTOR 659722.
• Sapir, Edward (1915a). "Algonkin languages of California: A reply". American Anthropologist. 17 (1): 188–198. doi:10.1525/aa.1915.17.1.02a00270. JSTOR 660169.
• Sapir, Edward (1915b). "Epilogue". American Anthropologist. 17: 198.

• Yurok Tribe Language Project
• Yurok Language Project at the University of California, Berkeley, with sound files and a searchable dictionary
• Yurok language overview at the Survey of California and Other Indian Languages
• OLAC resources in and about the Yurok language
• Yurok language resources Archived May 27, 2015, at the Wayback Machine at the California Language Archive
• "Yurok Swadesh List". Retrieved August 26, 2012.
• "Yurok Language Program" Youtube channel, run by a fluent teacher