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{{See also|Human computer}}
 
The first known tools used to aid arithmetic calculations were: bones (used to tally items), pebbles, and [[counting board]]s, and the [[abacus]], known to have been used by [[Sumer]]ians and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] before 2000&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{Harvcolnbsfnp|Ifrah|2001|p=11}}</ref> Except for the [[Antikythera mechanism]] (an "out of the time" [[Astronomy|astronomical]] device), development of computing tools arrived near the start of the 17th century: the [[Sector (instrument)|geometric-military compass]] (by [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]), [[logarithm]]s and [[Napier bones]] (by [[John Napier|Napier]]), and the [[slide rule]] (by [[Edmund Gunter]]).
 
[[File:17th-century-mechanical-calculators.jpg|thumb|17th century mechanical calculators]]
In 1642, the [[Renaissance]] saw the invention of the [[mechanical calculator]] (by [[Wilhelm Schickard]]<ref>See{{cite forweb example,|title= |url=http://calculatorhistory.net}}</ref> and several decades later [[Blaise Pascal]]<ref>{{harvp|Chapman|1942|pp=508, 509}}; "Pascal's invention of the [[calculating machine]]. Pascal invented his machine just four hundred years ago, as a youth of nineteen. He was spurred to it by sharing the burden of arithmetical labor involved in his father's official work as supervisor of taxes at Rouen. He conceived the idea of doing the work mechanically, and developed a design appropriate for this purpose ; showing herein the same combination of pure science and mechanical genius that characterized his whole life. But it was one thing to conceive and design the machine, and another to get it made and put into use. Here were needed those practical gifts that he displayed later in his inventions....<br />
In a sense, Pascal's invention was premature, in that the mechanical arts in his time were not sufficiently advanced to enable his machine to be made at an economic price, with the accuracy and strength needed for reasonably long use. This difficulty was not overcome until well on into the nineteenth century, by which time also a renewed stimulus to invention was given by the need for many kinds of calculation more intricate than those considered by Pascal. [[#NAT CHAP|S. Chapman, Magazine Nature]], pp.508,509 (1942)"</ref>), a device that was at times somewhat over-promoted as being able to perform all four [[arithmetic]] operations with minimal human intervention.<ref>"{{cite magazine |title=A New Calculator |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rf0IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA100 |magazine=The Gentleman's magazine |volume=202 |page=100 |quote=Pascal and Leibnitz, in the seventeenth century, and Diderot at a later period, endeavored to construct a machine which might serve as a substitute for human intelligence in the combination of figures" [https://books.google.com/books?id=Rf0IAAAAIAAJ&q=arithmometer&pg=PA100 The Gentleman's magazine, Volume 202, p.100] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171106145057/https://books.google.com/books?id=Rf0IAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA100&dq=arithmometer&as_brr=1 |date=2017-11-06 }}</ref> [[Pascal's calculator]] could add and subtract two numbers directly and thus, if the tedium could be borne, multiply and divide by repetition. Schickard's machine, constructed several decades earlier, used a clever set of mechanised multiplication tables to ease the process of multiplication and division with the adding machine as a means of completing this operation. There is a debate about whether Pascal or Shickard should be credited as the known inventor of a calculating machine due to the differences (like the different aims) of both inventions.<ref>See{{cite [web |url=http://metastudies.net/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Site.SchicardvsPascal |title=Pascal vs Schickard: An empty debate?] {{webarchive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408215848/http://metastudies.net/pmwiki/pmwiki.php?n=Site.SchicardvsPascal |archive-date=2014-04-08 }}</ref> Schickard and Pascal were followed by [[Gottfried Leibniz]] who spent forty years designing a four-operation mechanical calculator, the [[stepped reckoner]], inventing in the process his [[leibniz wheel]], but who couldn't design a fully operational machine.<ref>In 1893, the German calculating machine inventor Arthur Burkhardt was asked to put Leibniz machine in operating condition if possible. His report was favorable except for the sequence in the carry {{cite book |last=Ginsburg |first=Jekuthiel |title=Scripta Mathematica |journal=Science |volume=86 |issue=2218 |year=1933 |publisher=Kessinger Publishing, LLC|isbn=978-0-7661-3835-3 |page=149 |pmid=17737911 |doi=10.1126/science.86.2218.13-a |s2cid=28216043 |quote=In 1893, the German calculating machine inventor Arthur Burkhardt was asked to put Leibniz machine in operating condition if possible. His report was favorable except for the sequence in the carry.}}</ref> There were also five unsuccessful attempts to design a calculating clock in the 17th century.<ref>see [[Mechanical calculator#Other calculating machines]]</ref>
 
[[File:Grant mechanical calculating machine 1877.jpg|thumb|left|The Grant mechanical calculating machine, 1877]]
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[[File:LED DISP.JPG|thumb|Early calculator [[light-emitting diode]] (LED) display from the 1970s ([[USSR]])]]
 
In October 1961, the world's first ''all-electronic desktop'' calculator, the British [[Bell Punch]]/Sumlock Comptometer [[Sumlock ANITA calculator|ANITA]] ('''A''' '''N'''ew '''I'''nspiration '''T'''o '''A'''rithmetic/'''A'''ccounting) was announced.<ref>"{{cite magazine |title=Simple and Silent", ''|magazine=Office Magazine'', |date=December 1961, p1244|page=1244}}</ref><ref>"{{cite magazine |title='Anita' der erste tragbare elektonische Rechenautomat" [|trans:-title='Anita' "the first portable electronic computer"], ''|magazine=Büromaschinen Mechaniker'', |date=November 1961, p207|page=207}}</ref> This machine used [[vacuum tube]]s, cold-cathode tubes and [[Dekatron]]s in its circuits, with 12 cold-cathode [[Nixie tube|"Nixie"]] tubes for its display. Two models were displayed, the Mk VII for continental Europe and the Mk VIII for Britain and the rest of the world, both for delivery from early 1962. The Mk VII was a slightly earlier design with a more complicated mode of multiplication, and was soon dropped in favour of the simpler Mark VIII. The ANITA had a full keyboard, similar to mechanical [[comptometer]]s of the time, a feature that was unique to it and the later [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] CS-10A among electronic calculators. The ANITA weighed roughly {{convert|33|lb|kg}} due to its large tube system.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ball |first1=Guy |last2=Flamm |first2=Bruce |date=1996 |title=The History of Pocket Electronic Calculators |url=http://www.vintagecalculators.com/html/history_of_electronic_calculat.html |website=vintagecalculators.com|publisher=[[Vintage Calculators Web Museum]] |access-date=8 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703140814/http://vintagecalculators.com/html/history_of_electronic_calculat.html |archive-date=3 July 2014}}</ref> Bell Punch had been producing key-driven mechanical calculators of the comptometer type under the names "Plus" and "Sumlock", and had realised in the mid-1950s that the future of calculators lay in electronics. They employed the young graduate Norbert Kitz, who had worked on the early British [[Pilot ACE]] computer project, to lead the development. The ANITA sold well since it was the only electronic desktop calculator available, and was silent and quick.
 
The tube technology of the ANITA was superseded in June 1963 by the U.S. manufactured [[Friden, Inc.|Friden]] EC-130, which had an all-transistor design, a stack of four 13-digit numbers displayed on a {{convert|5|in|cm|adj=on}} [[cathode ray tube]] (CRT), and introduced [[Reverse Polish Notation]] (RPN) to the calculator market for a price of $2200, which was about three times the cost of an electromechanical calculator of the time. Like Bell Punch, Friden was a manufacturer of mechanical calculators that had decided that the future lay in electronics. In 1964 more all-transistor electronic calculators were introduced: [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] introduced the [[CS-10A]], which weighed {{convert|25|kg|lb}} and cost 500,000 yen (${{To USD|500000|JPN}}), and [[Industria Macchine Elettroniche]] of Italy introduced the IME 84, to which several extra keyboard and display units could be connected so that several people could make use of it (but apparently not at the same time). The [[Victor 3900]] was the first to use [[integrated circuit]]s in place of individual [[transistor]]s, but production problems delayed sales until 1966.
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{{Redirect|Pocket calculator|the song|Computer World}}
 
By 1970, a calculator could be made using just a few chips of low power consumption, allowing portable models powered from rechargeable batteries. {{anchor|Cal Tech}}The first handheld calculator was a 1967 prototype called '''''Cal Tech''''', whose development was led by [[Jack Kilby]] at [[Texas Instruments]] in a research project to produce a portable calculator. It could add, multiply, subtract, and divide, and its output device was a paper tape.<ref>[http://education.ti.com/educationportal/sites/US/nonProductSingle/about_press_release_news37.html Texas Instruments Celebrates the 35th Anniversary of Its Invention of the Calculator] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627144010/http://education.ti.com/educationportal/sites/US/nonProductSingle/about_press_release_news37.html |date=2008-06-27 }} [[Texas Instruments]] press release, 15 August 2002.</ref><ref>[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14845433 Electronic Calculator Invented 40 Years Ago] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205151504/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=14845433 |date=2008-12-05 }} All Things Considered, NPR, 30 September 2007. Audio interview with one of the inventors.</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=50 Jahre Taschenrechner – Die Erfindung, die niemand haben wollte |language=de |trans-title=50th anniversary of calculators – the invention not wanted by anyone |publisherwork=[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]] (FAZ) |work=Wirtschaft |date=2017-03-27 |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/wirtschaftswissen/50-jahre-taschenrechner-die-erfindung-die-niemand-haben-wollte-14944569.html |access-date=2017-03-30 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329202602/https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/wirtschaftswissen/50-jahre-taschenrechner-die-erfindung-die-niemand-haben-wollte-14944569.html |archive-date=2017-03-29 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journalmagazine |titlelast=TheMay |first=Mike calculators – |title=How theythe gotComputer intoGot yourInto pocketYour Pocket |journalmagazine=[[American Heritage of Invention & Technology]] |date=Spring 2000 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=42–54 |url=https://www.dropbox.com/s/bwwc9q3y090d2r8/How_the_Computer_Got_Into_Your_Pocket.pdf |access-date=2017-03-30 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journalmagazine |title=The Texas Edison |author-first=T. R. |author-last=Reid |journalmagazine=[[Texas Monthly]] |date=July 1982}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title= The First Handheld Digital Calculator Celebrates 50 Years |url= http://electronicdesign.com/analog/first-handheld-digital-calculator-celebrates-50-years-part-1 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170413153616/http://electronicdesign.com/analog/first-handheld-digital-calculator-celebrates-50-years-part-1 |archive-date= 2017-04-13 |dateurl-status=live |date=2017-03-27 |magazine=Electronic Design |first=Thomas |last=Okon}}</ref> As a result of the "Cal-Tech" project, Texas Instruments was granted master patents on portable calculators.
 
The first commercially produced portable calculators appeared in Japan in 1970, and were soon marketed around the world. These included the [[Sanyo]] ICC-0081 "Mini Calculator", the [[Canon (company)|Canon]] Pocketronic, and the [[Sharp QT-8B]] "micro Compet". The Canon Pocketronic was a development from the "Cal-Tech" project. It had no traditional display; numerical output was on thermal paper tape.
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The [[HP-12C|HP 12c]] financial calculator is still produced. It was introduced in 1981 and is still being made with few changes. The HP 12c featured the [[reverse Polish notation]] mode of data entry. In 2003 several new models were released, including an improved version of the HP 12c, the "HP 12c platinum edition" which added more memory, more built-in functions, and the addition of the algebraic mode of data entry.
 
[[Calculated Industries]] competed with the [[HP-12C|HP 12c]] in the mortgage and real estate markets by differentiating the key labeling; changing the "I", "PV", "FV" to easier labeling terms such as "Int", "Term", "Pmt", and not using the [[reverse Polish notation]]. However, CI's more successful calculators involved a line of construction calculators, which evolved and expanded in the 1990s to present. According to Mark Bollman,<ref>{{cite web |author=Mark Bollman |title=Mark->'s Calculator Collection |url=http://mathcs.albion.edu/~mbollman/Calculators.html |title=Mark->'s Calculator Collection |publisherwebsite=Mathcs.albion.edu |access-date=2011-07-19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719135244/http://mathcs.albion.edu/~mbollman/Calculators.html |archive-date=2011-07-19 |url-status=live}}</ref> a mathematics and calculator historian and associate professor of mathematics at Albion College, the "Construction Master is the first in a long and profitable line of CI construction calculators" which carried them through the 1980s, 1990s, and to the present.
 
==Use in education==▼
{{multiple image |total_width=330
[[File:|image1=Scientific_Calculator,_TI-30XIIS,_removed_background,_shadow.jpg |thumb|right|upright|caption1=A Texas Instruments TI-30XIIS scientific calculator, used commonly by students]]▼
[[File:|image2=Scientific Calculator.jpg |thumb|upright|caption2=A Catiga CS-103 Scientificscientific Calculator]]calculator▼
}}
In most countries, [[student]]s use calculators for schoolwork. There was some{{by whom|date=June 2022}} initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic or [[elementary arithmetic]] skills would suffer.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations ''in the head'', with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching [[Approximation|estimation]] methods and problem-solving. Research suggests that inadequate guidance in the use of calculating tools can restrict the kind of mathematical thinking that students engage in.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Thomas J. Bing |author2=Edward F. Redish |title=Symbolic Manipulators Affect Mathematical Mindsets |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=76 |issue=4 |page=418 |date=2007-12-07 |arxiv=0712.1187 |s2cid=28555451 |doi=10.1119/1.2835053 |bibcode=2008AmJPh..76..418B}}</ref> Others have argued{{who|date=December 2011}} that calculator use can even cause core mathematical skills to atrophy, or that such use can prevent understanding of advanced algebraic concepts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Calculator Use in Elementary Grades |website=NCTM |url=http://www.nctm.org/Standards-and-Positions/Position-Statements/Calculator-Use-in-Elementary-Grades/|access-date=3 August 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905072126/http://www.nctm.org/Standards-and-Positions/Position-Statements/Calculator-Use-in-Elementary-Grades/|archive-date=5 September 2015}}</ref> In December 2011 the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s [[Department for Education|Minister of State for Schools]], [[Nick Gibb]], voiced concern that children can become "too dependent" on the use of calculators.<ref name="guardian subtracting calculators">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/dec/01/subtracting-calculators-adds-children-maths |title=Subtracting calculators adds to children's maths abilities, says minister |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=December 1, 2011 |access-date=December 7, 2011 |author=Vasagar, Jeevan |location=London |author2=Shepherd, Jessica |quote=The use of calculators will be looked at as part of a national curriculum review, after the schools minister, Nick Gibb, expressed concern that children's mental and written arithmetic was suffering because of reliance on the devices. Gibb said: "Children can become too dependent on calculators if they use them at too young an age. They shouldn't be reaching for a gadget every time they need to do a simple sum. [...]" |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309100226/http://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/dec/01/subtracting-calculators-adds-children-maths |archive-date=March 9, 2016 }}</ref> As a result, the use of calculators is to be included as part of a review of the [[National Curriculum (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)|Curriculum]].<ref name="guardian subtracting calculators" /> In the United States, many math educators and boards of education have enthusiastically endorsed the [[National Council of Teachers of Mathematics]] (NCTM) standards and actively promoted the use of classroom calculators from kindergarten through high school.▼
 
==Personal computers==
[[File:Precise Calculator Pi 20210113.png|thumb|right|A calculator with a graphical user interface]]
Personal computers often come with a calculator utility program that emulates the appearance and functions of a calculator, using the [[graphical user interface]] to portray a calculator. Examples include the [[Calculator (Windows)|Windows Calculator]], [[Calculator (Apple)|Apple's Calculator]], and [[KCalc|KDE's KCalc]]. Most [[personal data assistant]]s (PDAs) and [[smartphone]]s also have such a feature.
 
▲==Use in education==
 
▲[[File:Scientific_Calculator,_TI-30XIIS,_removed_background,_shadow.jpg|thumb|right|upright|A TI-30XIIS scientific calculator, used commonly by students]]
▲[[File:Scientific Calculator.jpg|thumb|upright|A Catiga CS-103 Scientific Calculator]]
▲In most countries, [[student]]s use calculators for schoolwork. There was some{{by whom|date=June 2022}} initial resistance to the idea out of fear that basic or [[elementary arithmetic]] skills would suffer.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations ''in the head'', with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching [[Approximation|estimation]] methods and problem-solving. Research suggests that inadequate guidance in the use of calculating tools can restrict the kind of mathematical thinking that students engage in.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Thomas J. Bing |author2=Edward F. Redish |title=Symbolic Manipulators Affect Mathematical Mindsets |journal=American Journal of Physics |volume=76 |issue=4 |page=418 |date=2007-12-07 |arxiv=0712.1187 |s2cid=28555451 |doi=10.1119/1.2835053 |bibcode=2008AmJPh..76..418B}}</ref> Others have argued{{who|date=December 2011}} that calculator use can even cause core mathematical skills to atrophy, or that such use can prevent understanding of advanced algebraic concepts.<ref>{{cite web |title=Calculator Use in Elementary Grades |website=NCTM |url=http://www.nctm.org/Standards-and-Positions/Position-Statements/Calculator-Use-in-Elementary-Grades/|access-date=3 August 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905072126/http://www.nctm.org/Standards-and-Positions/Position-Statements/Calculator-Use-in-Elementary-Grades/|archive-date=5 September 2015}}</ref> In December 2011 the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s [[Department for Education|Minister of State for Schools]], [[Nick Gibb]], voiced concern that children can become "too dependent" on the use of calculators.<ref name="guardian subtracting calculators">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/dec/01/subtracting-calculators-adds-children-maths |title=Subtracting calculators adds to children's maths abilities, says minister |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=December 1, 2011 |access-date=December 7, 2011 |author=Vasagar, Jeevan |location=London |author2=Shepherd, Jessica |quote=The use of calculators will be looked at as part of a national curriculum review, after the schools minister, Nick Gibb, expressed concern that children's mental and written arithmetic was suffering because of reliance on the devices. Gibb said: "Children can become too dependent on calculators if they use them at too young an age. They shouldn't be reaching for a gadget every time they need to do a simple sum. [...]" |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309100226/http://www.theguardian.com/education/2011/dec/01/subtracting-calculators-adds-children-maths |archive-date=March 9, 2016 }}</ref> As a result, the use of calculators is to be included as part of a review of the [[National Curriculum (England, Wales and Northern Ireland)|Curriculum]].<ref name="guardian subtracting calculators" /> In the United States, many math educators and boards of education have enthusiastically endorsed the [[National Council of Teachers of Mathematics]] (NCTM) standards and actively promoted the use of classroom calculators from kindergarten through high school.
 
==See also==
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===Sources===
* {{cite journal| ref=NAT_CHAP| title=Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) Tercentenary of the calculating machine|author first=S.| last=Chapman| journal= Nature| volume= 150| issue=3809| date= October 31, 1942| pages = 508–509| location=London| doi=10.1038/150508a0| bibcode=1942Natur.150..508C| doi-access=free}}▼
* {{Cite journal |volume=103 |issue=8 |pages=633–639 |last=Hamrick |first=Kathy B. |title=The History of the Hand-Held Electronic Calculator |journal=The American Mathematical Monthly |date=October 1996 |doi=10.2307/2974875 |jstor=2974875}}
* {{cite book|title=The Universal History of Computing |last=Ifrah|first=Georges|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-471-39671-0|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_w3q2}}
* {{cite book|language=fr|title=Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942 |first=Jean |last=Marguin |year=1994 |publisher=Hermann |isbn=978-2-7056-6166-3|ref=MARG}}
* {{cite book |ref=WILLIAMS |last=Williams |first=Michael R. |title=History of Computing Technology |publisher=IEEE Computer Society|location=Los Alamitos, California |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8186-7739-7}}
* {{cite book |titlelast=TheWilliams Universal|first=Michael R. |title=History of Computing|last=Ifrah|first=Georges Technology |publisher=JohnIEEE WileyComputer &Society Sons|location=Los Alamitos, Inc.California |year=20011997 |isbn=978-0-4718186-396717739-0|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_w3q27}}
▲* {{cite journal| ref=NAT_CHAP| title=Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) Tercentenary of the calculating machine|author=S. Chapman| journal= Nature| volume= 150| issue=3809| date= October 31, 1942| pages = 508–509| location=London| doi=10.1038/150508a0| bibcode=1942Natur.150..508C| doi-access=free}}
 
==Further reading==
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator"