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Same-sex marriage in Washington (state)

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Same-sex marriage has been legally recognized in the U.S. state of Washington since December 6, 2012. On February 13, 2012, Governor Christine Gregoire signed legislation that established full marriage rights for same-sex couples in the state of Washington. Opponents mounted a challenge that required voters to approve the statute at a referendum, which they did on November 6. The law took effect on December 6, and the first marriages were performed on December 9. Within a couple of days, more than 600 marriage licenses were issued to same-sex couples in King County alone. Washington was the seventh U.S. state, and the eighth U.S. jurisdiction (after the District of Columbia), to legalize same-sex marriages.[a]

Previously, in 1998, the state had enacted the Defense of Marriage Act that restricted marriage to different-sex couples, reinforcing its statutes that had been interpreted by a state court in 1974 as imposing the same restriction. Several lawsuits filed in state court challenged the state's marriage laws without success, including one filed in 1971, one of the first such cases in the United States.

Statutory ban

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In 1997, the Washington State Legislature, in response to events in Hawaii that suggested that the state might legalize same-sex marriage,[1] passed a bill that would define marriage as the "union of a man and a woman" and deny legal recognition to same-sex marriages established elsewhere. The vote was 63 to 35 in the House and 27 to 19 in the Senate.[2] Governor Gary Locke vetoed the legislation on February 21, calling it "divisive and unnecessary", citing the 1974 state court decision in Singer v. Hara. He wrote in his veto message: "Our overarching principle should be to promote civility, mutual respect and unity. This legislation fails to meet this test."[3] An attempt to override his veto failed in the Senate on a party-line vote,[4] 26 to 20, when seven Democrats who had originally supported the measure changed their position to support Governor Locke.[2] Although Republicans threatened to put the issue to a popular referendum in November, some of their members thought the issue was not urgent enough to risk a contentious public campaign.[2]

In 1998, the State Legislature passed the same legislation, the Defense of Marriage Act, and expected Governor Locke to allow it to become law without his signature. Instead, he vetoed it a second time, saying that "our laws right now prohibit same-gender marriages, and I oppose this legislation because it is trying to make illegal something that is already illegal". Democrats who feared the impact of having the legislation on the November ballot helped override his veto. One Democratic leader in the House, Marlin Appelwick, said: "I'll vote to override. I'll stand up and say it's a bad bill, but it's even worse to have this issue on the ballot."[4] According to The Seattle Times: "Lawmakers, eager to be done with the controversial issue, rushed the ban through in minutes and dumped it in the governor's lap. Locke's veto came within the hour. Then both houses voted summarily to override the veto. No one could remember the last time a bill was passed, vetoed and overridden within hours–with almost no discussion and no debate."[5]

Lawsuits

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Supporters of same-sex marriage campaigning in June 2012, Seattle

Singer v. Hara

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In 1971, in Seattle, in one of the first same-sex marriage lawsuits in the United States, gay activists John Singer (later known as Faygele Ben-Miriam)[6] and Paul Barwick requested a marriage license from the King County Auditor, Lloyd Hara, to demonstrate the inequality between gay and heterosexual couples.[7] Hara refused, and Singer and Barwick brought suit on the grounds that the denial violated the Equal Rights Amendment of the State Constitution. The Washington Court of Appeals denied the claim in 1974 in Singer v. Hara, and the Washington Supreme Court later refused to review the decision.[8][9]

Andersen v. King County

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Main article: Andersen v. King County

On March 8, 2004, six same-sex couples represented by Lambda Legal filed suit in state court challenging the constitutionality of Washington's Defense of Marriage Act. The four constitutional claims were based on due process, privacy, equal protection and gender equality. On August 4, King County Superior Court Judge William L. Downing issued an opinion in Andersen v. Sims that the state had no rational basis for excluding same-sex couples from the rights and benefits of marriage. The decision concluded that the state law limiting marriage to different-sex couples violated sections of the Constitution that required due process and equal protection of the laws. The court did not require the state to allow same-sex couples to marry, but mandated the creation of a civil union status that would provide all the rights and benefits of marriage to same-sex couples. Downing stayed enforcement of his order pending appeal to the Washington Supreme Court. On April 1, 2004, eleven same-sex couples represented by the American Civil Liberties Union filed suit in state court challenging Washington's laws that banned same-sex couples from marrying. They also sought recognition of marriages performed legally in other jurisdictions. On September 7, Thurston County Superior Court Judge Richard D. Hicks ruled in Castle v. State that the state's marriage laws violated the equal protection of privileges and immunities clause of the State Constitution.

The Washington Supreme Court consolidated the two cases, Andersen v. Sims and Castle v. State, for review as Andersen v. King County. It heard oral arguments on March 8, 2005. On July 26, 2006, it reversed the trial courts' determinations in a 5–4 ruling. The majority opinion focused on the constitutionality of the State Legislature's enactment of the Defense of Marriage Act limiting the privileges of marriage to opposite-sex couples. In October 2006, the court refused to reconsider its ruling.[10]

Initiative 957

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On January 10, 2007, the Washington Defense of Marriage Alliance, an activist organization that, despite its name, favored marriage rights for same-sex couples, filed a voter initiative, Initiative 957, to incorporate part of the Andersen decision into state statutes by making procreation a requirement for all marriages in Washington. The group's stated rationale was to prompt public examination of the premise that marriage exists for the purpose of procreation and to create a test case in which Andersen would be reversed. The initiative's sponsors withdrew it on July 3, after failing to gather a sufficient number of signatures to qualify for the November ballot.

Same-sex marriage law

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Just married couples leaving Seattle City Hall are greeted by well-wishers on the first day of same-sex marriage in Washington.
Some of the first same-sex couples to be married in Washington proceeding to welcoming crowds down the steps of Seattle City Hall, December 9, 2012

Passage and promulgation

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Advocates of marriage rights for same-sex couples, lacking the votes in the State Legislature to accomplish their objective, instead focused on enacting domestic partnerships that would grant such couples a subset of the rights attached to marriage. A law to this effect was approved by the State Legislature in 2007. This legal status was also made available under certain circumstances to different-sex couples. The legislation took effect on April 22, 2007.[11] A same-sex marriage bill was also introduced in the 2007 legislative session, but failed to make it out of committee.[12]

On January 26, 2012, legislation legalizing same-sex marriage and converting most domestic partnerships not dissolved within two years into marriages passed the Washington State Senate's Committee for Government Operations, Tribal Relations and Elections. Republican Dan Swecker introduced four amendments that failed on a party-line vote of 3–4. Republican Don Benton asked for the legislation to be placed on the November 2012 ballot as a referendum but his motion failed by a 3–4 vote. The bill was reported out of the committee by a 4–3 vote.[13] It passed the Senate by a vote of 28–21 on February 1.

The House of Representatives took up the same measure and passed it out of the Judiciary Committee on January 30 by a 7–6 party-line vote.[14] The committee voted on the Senate-approved version of the bill on February 6, passing it by a 7–5 vote, with one Republican committee member absent.[15][16] The House passed the legislation on February 8 by a vote of 55–43.[17][18] The legislation also provided that all domestic partnerships not involving at least one member aged 62 years or older and not dissolved within two years of the date the law would go into effect would automatically become marriages.[19][20] Governor Christine Gregoire signed the bill into law on February 13.[21] It was scheduled to take effect 90 days after the end of the legislative session.

Referendum

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Main article: 2012 Washington Referendum 74
 
Results of Referendum 74 (2012) by county

Opponents of the legalization of same-sex marriage delayed its implementation by collecting the signatures necessary to put the measure to a popular vote on November 6, 2012, as Referendum 74.[22] In that referendum, voters approved the law by a 54%–46% margin.[23][24] The law took effect on December 6. Because Washington requires a three-day waiting period (excluding the day of issue) before a marriage license may be signed, the first same-sex marriages in the state took place on December 9, 2012.[25][26] Among the first couples to obtain marriage licenses were Lisa Brodoff and Lynn Grotsky in Olympia, the state capital, early on Thursday morning, December 6. In Seattle, about 150 same-sex couples lined up outside Seattle City Hall shortly before midnight, "waiting in a festive atmosphere for the doors to open" to obtain marriage licenses.[27] Jane Abbott Lighty and Pete-e Petersen were the first couple to obtain a license in King County.[28]

Following the coming into effect of the same-sex marriage law on December 6, 2012, the definition of marriage in the state of Washington is now as follows:[29]

Marriage is a civil contract between two persons who have each attained the age of eighteen years, and who are otherwise capable. [RCW 26.04.010 (1)]

Subsequent developments

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Three years after legalization in Washington, the U.S. Supreme Court legalized same-sex marriage nationwide with its Obergefell v. Hodges ruling on June 26, 2015. State Senator Jamie Pedersen welcomed the decision, "There's a great sense of peace that this is finally over after all these years. [...] There's a lot more work to do both here in our state and even more nationally. We know a hugely disproportionate number of homeless youth are LGBT." Mayor of Seattle Ed Murray said "[he had] never imagined this day", while Tom Rasmussen, a member of the Seattle City Council, said, "This day is a dream. It seems like an impossible dream."[30]

In 2024, while running for governor, Dave Reichert told a group of Republicans that, "Let me make this very clear. I will not take any steps as Governor to restrict same-sex marriage. Every individual has the right to decide who they choose to marry. People have free will—it's their body, their life, their belief system."; however, when answering questions from the audience, he said, "Number one, my wife is a woman and I am a man. You're a woman and I'm a man. There's only man and woman. I was raised with that as a Christian. And marriage is between a man and a woman."[31]

Native American nations

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Same-sex marriage is legal on the reservations of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, whose Tribal Council voted unanimously to legalize same-sex marriage in September 2013,[32] the Port Gamble Band of S'Klallam Indians, the Puyallup Tribe of Indians,[b] whose Tribal Council voted unanimously to legalize in July 2014,[35] the Suquamish Indian Tribe of the Port Madison Reservation, which was the first tribe to do so in August 2011,[36] and the Tulalip Tribes of Washington. The Tulalip Board of Directors amended the Tribal Code on May 6, 2016 to state: "'Marriage' means the legal union of two persons, regardless of their sex, created to the exclusion of all others."[37] The Port Gamble S'Klallam Tribe announced in the wake of Referendum 74 in December 2012 that they would allow same-sex couples to marry on their reservation, including at the Heronswood Botanical Gardens in Kingston.[38] Some tribal codes use gender-neutral language with regard to whom may marry, including the Skokomish Indian Tribe and the Cowlitz Indian Tribe;[c] however, it is unclear if same-sex marriage is explicitly allowed on their reservations.

While there are no records of same-sex marriages as understood from a Western perspective being performed in Native American cultures, there is evidence for identities and behaviours that may be placed on the LGBT spectrum. Many of these cultures recognized two-spirit individuals who were born male but wore women's clothing and performed everyday household work and artistic handiwork which were regarded as belonging to the feminine sphere.[43] This two-spirit status allowed for marriages between two biological males or two biological females to be performed in some of these tribes.[43] The Sahaptin refer to two-spirit individuals as wáƛ̓uks (pronounced [wátɬʼuks]).[44] The Quileute, who live in the present-day Quileute Indian Reservation in La Push, call them yá·x̣ʷa.[45] Among the Syilx, two-spirit people are known as st̓ámyaʔ (pronounced [ˈstʼamjaʔ]).[46] In some Coast Salish languages, two-spirit individuals may also be referred to by translations of the term "twin-spirit".[d]

Economic impact

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In 2006, a study from the University of California, Los Angeles estimated the impact of allowing same-sex couples to marry on Washington's state budget. The study concluded that allowing same-sex couples to marry would result in a net gain of approximately $3.9 million to $5.7 million each year for the state. This net impact would result from savings in state expenditures on means-tested public benefits programs and from an increase in sales tax revenue from weddings and wedding-related tourism.[49]

Marriage statistics

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Two men marrying in Seattle on December 9, 2012, the first day in which the possibility to marry was opened to same-sex couples

By September 2013, nine months after same-sex marriage was legalized in Washington, 7,071 same-sex couples had legally entered into a marriage, 3,452 of them in highly populated King County.[50] Same-sex marriages accounted for 17% of all marriages, and 62% of those were between women.[51] By December 31, 2015, approximately 15,750 same-sex marriages had been performed in Washington, a significant proportion of which occurred in the first 12 months of legalisation.[52] 2,091 same-sex marriages were performed in 2016, 1,915 in 2017, 1,884 in 2018, 1,690 in 2019, and 1,747 in 2020, with most being between lesbian couples. These figures do not include conversions from domestic partnerships.[53]

The 2020 U.S. census showed that there were 21,659 married same-sex couple households (9,825 male couples and 11,834 female couples) and 13,693 unmarried same-sex couple households in Washington.[54]

Same-sex marriages in Washington (2012–2016)[55]
County 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Total
Adams 2 0 2 0 1 5
Asotin 1 13 8 3 5 30
Benton 22 89 37 43 25 216
Chelan 7 58 29 19 32 145
Clallam 7 62 40 21 22 152
Clark 98 1,431 432 127 82 2,170
Columbia 1 4 8 2 0 15
Cowlitz 2 50 27 27 18 124
Douglas 2 8 4 0 1 15
Ferry 0 2 1 0 0 3
Franklin 1 11 13 11 11 47
Garfield 0 0 2 0 0 2
Grant 2 20 11 9 10 52
Grays Harbor 7 60 27 20 23 137
Island 27 151 61 44 43 326
Jefferson 6 68 45 13 25 157
King 687 3,840 1,746 943 928 8,144
Kitsap 25 242 134 95 76 572
Kittitas 2 31 10 8 19 70
Klickitat 1 38 22 4 2 67
Lewis 5 34 22 15 12 88
Lincoln 1 0 5 3 0 9
Mason 5 58 31 25 10 129
Okanogan 2 18 8 9 6 43
Pacific 3 29 15 7 10 64
Pend Oreille 1 10 6 1 1 19
Pierce 87 538 334 254 253 1,466
San Juan 10 82 42 25 15 174
Skagit 9 94 48 37 19 207
Skamania 1 63 29 4 9 106
Snohomish 51 376 198 144 134 903
Spokane 45 336 189 85 104 759
Stevens 2 9 8 3 7 29
Thurston 72 301 142 96 84 695
Wahkiakum 0 2 3 1 1 7
Walla Walla 4 51 26 7 7 95
Whatcom 25 165 72 52 64 378
Whitman 2 30 17 5 7 61
Yakima 12 55 42 35 25 169
Tribal Authority 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 1,237 8,429 3,896 2,197 2,091 17,850

Public opinion

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Public opinion for same-sex marriage in Washington
Poll source Dates administered Sample size Margin of error Support Opposition Do not know / refused
Public Religion Research Institute March 9 – December 7, 2023 517 adults ? 78% 20% 2%
Public Religion Research Institute March 11 – December 14, 2022 ? ? 83% 15% 2%
Public Religion Research Institute March 8 – November 9, 2021 ? ? 82% 16% 2%
Public Religion Research Institute January 7 – December 20, 2020 1,310 adults ? 72% 22% 6%
Public Religion Research Institute April 5 – December 23, 2017 1,762 adults ? 73% 21% 6%
Public Religion Research Institute May 18, 2016 – January 10, 2017 2,264 adults ? 64% 26% 10%
Public Religion Research Institute April 29, 2015 – January 7, 2016 1,923 adults ? 65% 28% 7%
Public Policy Polling May 14–17, 2015 879 registered voters ± 3.3% 56% 36% 8%
Public Religion Research Institute April 2, 2014 – January 4, 2015 1,133 adults ? 63% 29% 8%
Public Policy Polling November 1–3, 2012 932 likely voters ± 3.2% 54% 40% 6%
Public Policy Polling June 14–17, 2012 932 voters ± 3.2% 51% 42% 7%
Public Policy Polling February 16–19, 2012 1,264 voters ± 2.8% 49% 44% 7%
University of Washington October 10–30, 2011 938 registered voters ± 3.2% 43% 54% 3%
Public Policy Polling May 12–15, 2011 1,098 voters ± 3.0% 46% 44% 10%

Various polls have been commissioned by participants in the same-sex marriage debate. The poll results reflect different question wording and sampling. The October 2011 University of Washington poll found that 55% of Washington voters would vote to uphold a legislatively approved same-sex marriage bill if it were put to a referendum, while 38% would oppose it and 7% were undecided. A separate question on the same survey found that 43% of respondents thought that gay and lesbian couples should have the same right to marry as straight couples, 22% thought that gay and lesbian couples should have the same rights as straight couples without the word "marriage", 15% thought that gay and lesbian couples should have domestic partnerships with only some of the rights of marriage, while 17% opposed all legal recognition, and 3% did not know.[56] The February 2012 Public Policy Polling (PPP) survey found that 50% of Washington voters would vote to uphold a same-sex marriage law, while 46% would vote to repeal it and 4% were not sure. In addition, 32% believed that same-sex couples should be allowed to enter civil unions but not marriage and 20% were opposed to all legal recognition of same-sex relationships.[57] According to the Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI) survey conducted between March 11 and December 14, 2022, 83% of Washington respondents supported same-sex marriage, while 15% were opposed.[58] This was the highest level of support recorded in the country, tied with Massachusetts (83%), and followed by New Hampshire (82%), Connecticut (81%), and Rhode Island (80%).

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ After Massachusetts, Connecticut, Iowa, Vermont, New Hampshire and New York, but excluding California which had constitutionally banned same-sex marriage in November 2008, but still recognized marriages performed between June and November 2008.
  2. ^ The Domestic Relations Code of the Puyallup Tribe of Indians states that a "same sex marriage may be validly contracted within the Puyallup Indian Reservation either by following the laws of the State of Washington or by meeting the requirements herein: (a) One of the persons who wishes to marry must be a member of the Puyallup Tribe of Indians; and (b) Must be 18 years of age or older; and (c) Must obtain and sign a certificate of marriage in front of witnesses."[33] Previously, the code only permitted marriages between a "husband" (Lushootseed: sč̓istxʷ) and a "wife" (čə́gʷəš).[34]
  3. ^ The Skokomish Codes and Ordinances and the Tribal Code of the Cowlitz Indian Tribe do not explicitly ban same-sex marriage or define marriage as being exclusively between a "husband" (Twana: kʷtabac;[39] Cowlitz: xə́n)[40] and a "wife" (Twana: čuw̓aš; Cowlitz: kə́wɬ).[41][42]
  4. ^ The term "twin-spirit" is notably used in Halkomelem.[47] The translation in Klallam is sč̕ələyáyə səlí.[48]

References

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  1. ^ "Governor Vetoes Gay Marriage Ban". Los Angeles Times. February 22, 1997. Retrieved September 2, 2014.
  2. ^ a b c Targovnik, Diane (February 27, 1997). "Locke's Veto of Gay Marriage Ban Stands". The Spokesman-Review. Associated Press. Retrieved September 2, 2014.
  3. ^ Ammons, David (February 22, 1997). "Locke Vetoes Ban On Same-Sex Marriages Flays Bill As Discriminatory; Lawmakers Vow To Send Issue To Voters". The Spokesman-Review. Associated Press. Retrieved September 2, 2014.
  4. ^ a b "Democrats Plan To Defy Locke On Gay Marriage Even A Veto Override Would Be Better Than A Public Vote, They Say". The Spokesman-Review. February 5, 1998. Retrieved September 2, 2014.
  5. ^ Mapes, Lynda V. (February 7, 1998). "Gay-Marriage Ban Coasts Into Law–Harried Democrats Help Override Veto". Seattle Times. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
  6. ^ Beers, Carole (June 7, 2000). "Faygele benMiriam crusaded for rights". Seattle Times. Retrieved October 31, 2012.
  7. ^ McNerthney, Casey (December 13, 2012). "Seattle gay rights pioneer recalls struggle for marriage equality: Paul Barwick and John Singer were first to apply for same-sex marriage in King County". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved December 13, 2012.
  8. ^ "Gay Marriage’s Jewish Pioneer", Eli Sanders, The Tablet, June 6, 2012.
  9. ^ Washington Court of Appeals: Singer v. Hara, May 20, 1974
  10. ^ "Anderson v. King County", Lambda Legal
  11. ^ "Governor Gregoire Signs Legislation Giving Legal Rights to Domestic Partners". Office of the Governor. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010. Retrieved March 19, 2010.
  12. ^ "HB 1350 - 2007-08". Washington State Legislature. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
  13. ^ Salerno, Christina (January 26, 2012). "Same-sex marriage bill passes in Senate committee". Capitol Record. Archived from the original on September 19, 2012. Retrieved August 31, 2014.
  14. ^ "Wash. House committee approves gay marriage bill". Seattle Post Intelligencer. January 30, 2012.
  15. ^ Runquist, Justin (February 6, 2012). "Washington Legislature: Gay marriage bill moves through House Judiciary Committee". OregonLive.com.
  16. ^ "Washington State Senate approves same-sex marriage". MSNBC. February 1, 2012. Archived from the original on February 2, 2012.
  17. ^ "Washington state legislature votes to approve same-sex marriage". CNN. February 8, 2012.
  18. ^ "Washington state House approves same-sex marriage". Seattle Post Intelligencer. February 8, 2012. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  19. ^ "Referendum 74: Frequently Asked Questions, Office of the Washington Secretary of State, June 2012". Archived from the original on January 30, 2013. Retrieved November 7, 2012.
  20. ^ Turnbull, Lornet (February 16, 2014). "State to same-sex domestic partners: You're about to be married". Seattle Times. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
  21. ^ Turnbull, Lornet (February 14, 2012). "Gregoire signs gay marriage into law". Seattle Times. Retrieved December 6, 2012.
  22. ^ "Anti-gay-marriage measure qualifies for Wash. state ballot". USA Today. June 12, 2012. Retrieved July 2, 2012.
  23. ^ "Referendum Measure No. 74 Concerns marriage for same-sex couples". Washington Secretary of State. Archived from the original on December 14, 2012. Retrieved December 6, 2012.
  24. ^ Connelly, Joel (November 8, 2012). "Washington approves same-sex marriage". Seattle Post Intelligencer. Retrieved December 6, 2012.
  25. ^ Pilkington, Ed (December 9, 2012). "Washington state kicks off day of gay marriages with midnight ceremonies". The Guardian. London. Retrieved December 9, 2012.
  26. ^ La Corte, Rachel (December 9, 2012). "Washington Gay Marriage Law Takes Effect". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved March 15, 2013.
  27. ^ "Washington state begins issuing same-sex marriage licences". The Guardian. December 6, 2012.
  28. ^ Mason, Gary (December 10, 2012). "Matriarchs of same-sex movement seal their union with a kiss". The Globe and Mail.
  29. ^ Title 26 Chapter 26.04
  30. ^ Bush, Evan; Young, Bob (June 26, 2015). "Gays in state celebrate recognition of their marriages nationwide". The Seattle Times. Archived from the original on December 30, 2015.
  31. ^ Smith, Rich (April 16, 2024). "Dave Reichert to Pierce County Republicans: "Marriage Is Between a Man and a Woman"". The Strangler.
  32. ^ "Colvilles recognize same sex marriage". Wenatcheeworld.com. September 7, 2013. Retrieved December 27, 2015.
  33. ^ "Chapter 7.08 Domestic Relations Code". www.codepublishing.com. Retrieved August 19, 2024.
  34. ^ "A Lushootseed Analysis of a 1877 Dictionary by George Gibbs" (PDF). Puyallup Tribe of Indians. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 3, 2024. Retrieved August 19, 2024.
  35. ^ Nagle, Matt (July 16, 2014). "Puyallup Tribe Recognizes Same-Sex Marriages". Tacoma Weekly. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved July 21, 2014.
  36. ^ Gardner, Steven (August 1, 2011). "Suquamish Tribe approves same-sex marriage". Kitsap Sun. Archived from the original on August 3, 2011. Retrieved August 2, 2011.
  37. ^ "Tulalip Tribal Codes". Codepublishing.com. Retrieved July 25, 2016.
  38. ^ "Port Gamble S'Klallam Tribe | Peninsular Thinking". Pugetsoundblogs.com. December 4, 2012. Retrieved December 27, 2015.
  39. ^ "The Twana Language E-Dictionary Project" (PDF). Skokomish Indian Tribe. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 23, 2024. Retrieved August 19, 2024.
  40. ^ "Cowlitz Coast Salish Dictionary". Cowlitz Indian Tribe. Archived from the original on June 4, 2024. Retrieved August 19, 2024.
  41. ^ "Skokomish Child Protection And Family Preservation Ordinance" (PDF). Skokomish Indian Tribe. Retrieved August 19, 2024.
  42. ^ "Title 26, Cowlitz Tribal Criminal Codes, Chapter 26.25 Offences Against The Family". Cowlitz Indian Tribe. Retrieved August 19, 2024.
  43. ^ a b Sabine Lang (1998). Men as women, women as men: changing gender in Native American cultures. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-74701-2.
  44. ^ "Umatilla Dictionary: wáƛ̓uks". Archived from the original on August 19, 2022. Retrieved August 19, 2022.
  45. ^ "English to Quileute Dictionary". Quileute Language Dictionary. Archived from the original on June 19, 2024. Retrieved August 18, 2024.
  46. ^ Mattina, Anthony (1987). Colville-Okanagan Dictionary. University of Montana. p. 317.
  47. ^ Wesley, Saylesh (2014). "Twin-Spirited Woman". Transgender Studies Quarterly. 1 (3): 338–351. doi:10.1215/23289252-2685624.
  48. ^ Montler, Timothy (2012). Klallam Dictionary. University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295992075.
  49. ^ Badgett, M. V. Lee; Sears, Brad; Kukura, Elizabeth; Lau, Holning S. (June 1, 2006). "eScholarship: The Impact of Washington's Budget of Allowing Same-Sex Couples to Marry". Repositories.cdlib.org. Retrieved January 20, 2012.
  50. ^ Thousands of gay couples tie the knot in Washington state
  51. ^ "Gay weddings make up 17% of Washington state marriages in year". Al Jazeera. December 5, 2013.
  52. ^ Demay, By Daniel (November 8, 2017). "Legal gay marriage marks 5 years in Washington". SeattlePI.com.
  53. ^ "Washington State Vital Statistics" (PDF). doh.wa.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 17, 2022. Retrieved May 18, 2022.
  54. ^ "PCT1405 Couple Households, By Type". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on June 9, 2023. Retrieved December 11, 2023.
  55. ^ "Marriage Tables by Year". Washington State Department of Health. Archived from the original on January 27, 2022.
  56. ^ "2011 Washington Poll" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 3, 2011. Retrieved January 20, 2012.
  57. ^ Voters Support Gay Marriage
  58. ^ "PRRI – American Values Atlas 2022: Washington". Public Religion Research Institute. Retrieved April 25, 2022.
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