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Population of Canada

Canada ranks 36th by population among countries of the world, comprising about 0.5% of the world's total,[2] with more than 40 million Canadians as of 2024.[3][4] Despite being the second-largest country by total area (fourth-largest by land area), the vast majority of the country is sparsely inhabited, with most of its population south of the 55th parallel north. Just over 60 percent of Canadians live in just two provinces: Ontario and Quebec. Though Canada's overall population density is low, many regions in the south, such as the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, have population densities higher than several European countries. Canada has six population centres with more than one million people: Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton and Ottawa.

Canada population density map (2014)
Top left: The Quebec City–Windsor Corridor is the most densely inhabited and heavily industrialized region accounting for nearly 50 percent of the total population[1]

The large size of Canada's north, which is currently not arable, and thus cannot support large human populations, significantly lowers the country's carrying capacity. In 2021, the population density of Canada was 4.2 people per square kilometre.[5]

The historical growth of Canada's population is complex and has been influenced in many different ways, such as Indigenous populations, expansion of territory, and human migration. Immigration has been, and remains, the most important factor in Canada's population growth.[6] The 2021 Canadian census counted a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 per cent over the 2016 figure.[7][8] Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 per cent overall growth.[9]

Historical population overview

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Indigenous peoples

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See also: Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
 
A map of Canada showing the percent of self-reported indigenous identity (First Nations, Inuit, Métis) by census division, according to the 2021 Canadian census[10]

Scholars disagree on the estimated size of the indigenous population in what is now Canada prior to colonization and on the effects of European contact.[11] Estimates of this population during the late 15th century range between 200,000[12] and two million,[13] with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health.[14] Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[15] However repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity),[16] combined with other effects of European contact, resulted in a twenty-five per cent to eighty per cent indigenous population decrease post-contact.[12] Roland G Robertson suggests that during the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Wyandot (Huron), who controlled most of the early North American fur trade in the area of New France.[17] In 1822 the indigenous Canadian population, excluding the Métis, was estimated as 283,500 people.[18] In 1871 there was an enumeration of the indigenous population within the limits of Canada at the time, showing a total of only 102,358 individuals.[19] In 1885 the number of indigenous people in Canada was reported as 131,952 individuals.[20] From 2006 to 2016, the Indigenous population has grown by 42.5 per cent, four times the national rate.[21] The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.[22] According to the 2011 Canadian Census, indigenous peoples (First Nations – 851,560, Inuit – 59,445 and Métis – 451,795) numbered at 1,400,685, or 4.3% of the country's total population.[23]

New France

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Further information: New France § Growth of the settlements

The European population grew slowly under French rule,[24] thus remained relatively low as growth was largely achieved through natural births, rather than by immigration.[25] Most of the French were farmers, and the rate of natural increase among the settlers themselves was very high.[26] The women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France.[27] Demographer Yves Landry says, "Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time."[27] The 1666 census of New France was the first census conducted in North America.[28] It was organized by Jean Talon, the first Intendant of New France, between 1665 and 1666.[28] According to Talon's census there were 3,215 people in New France, comprising 538 separate families.[29] The census showed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women.[29] By the early 1700s the New France settlers were well established along the Saint Lawrence River and Acadian Peninsula with a population around 15,000 to 16,000.[30] Mainly due to natural increase and modest immigration from Northwest France (Brittany, Normandy, Île-de-France, Poitou-Charentes and Pays de la Loire) the population of New France increased to 55,000 according to the last French census of 1754.[31] This was an increase from 42,701 in 1730.[32]

British Canada

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Distribution of the population in Canada for the years 1851, 1871, 1901, 1921 and 1941

During the late 18th and early 19th century Canada under British rule experienced strong population growth. In the wake of the 1775 invasion of Canada by the newly formed Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, approximately 60,000 of the 80,000 Americans loyal to the Crown, designated later as United Empire Loyalists fled to British North America, a large portion of whom migrated to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick (separated from Nova Scotia) in 1784.[33] Although the exact numbers cannot be certain because of unregistered migration[34] At least 20,000 went to Nova Scotia, 14,000 to New Brunswick; 1,500 to PEI and 6,000 to Ontario(13,000 including 5,000 blacks went to England and 5,500 to the Caribbean). For the rest of the 1780s additional immigrants arrived from the south. From 1791 An additional 30,000 Americans, called "Late Loyalists", were lured into Ontario in the 1790s by the promise of land and swearing loyalty to the Crown.[35] As a result of the period known as the Great Migration by 1831, Lower Canada's population had reached approximately 553,000, with Upper Canada reaching about 237,000 individuals.[36] The Great Famine of Ireland of the 1840s had significantly increased the pace of Irish immigration to Prince Edward Island and the Province of Canada, peaking in 1847 with 100,000 distressed individuals.[37] By 1851, the population of the Maritime colonies also reached roughly 533,000 (277,000 in Nova Scotia, 194,000 in New Brunswick and 62,000 in Prince Edward Island).[38] To the west British Columbia had about 55,000 individuals by 1851.[38] Beginning in the late 1850s, the immigration of Chinese into the Colony of Vancouver Island and Colony of British Columbia peaked with the onset of the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush.[39] By 1861, as a result of natural births and the Great Migration of Canada from the British Isles, the Province of Canada population increased to 3.1 million inhabitants.[38] Newfoundland's population by 1861 reached approximately 125,000 individuals.[38]

Post-confederation

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The population has increased every year since the establishment of the Dominion of Canada in 1867; however, the population of Newfoundland was not included prior to its entry into confederation as Canada's tenth province in 1949.[40][41] The first national census of the country was taken in 1871, with a population count around 3,689,000.[42] The year with the least population growth (in real terms) was 1882–1883, when only 30,000 new individuals were enumerated.[41]

 
Births and immigration in Canada from 1850 to 2000

The 1911 census was a detailed enumeration of the population showing a count of 7,206,643 individuals.[43] This was an increase of 34% over the 1901 census of 5,371,315.[44] The year with the most population growth was during the peak of the Post-World War II baby boom in 1956–1957, when the population grew by over 529,000, in a single twelve-month period.[41] The Canadian baby boom, defined as the period from 1947 to 1966, saw more than 400,000 babies born annually.[45] The 1996 census recorded a total population of 28,846,761.[46] This was a 5.7% increase over the 1991 census of 27,296,859.[46] The 2001 census had a total population count of 30,007,094.[47] In contrast, the official Statistics Canada population estimate for 2001 was 31,021,300.[48]

Canada's total population enumerated by the 2006 census was 31,612,897.[49] This count was lower than the official 1 July 2006 population estimate of 32,623,490 people.[49] Ninety per cent of the population growth between 2001 and 2006 was concentrated in the main metropolitan areas.[50] The 2011 census was the fifteenth decennial census with a total population count of 33,476,688 up 5.9% from 2006. On average, censuses have been taken every five years since 1905. Censuses are required to be taken at least every ten years as mandated in section 8 of the Constitution Act, 1867.[51]

Components of population growth

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A population estimate for 2022 put the total number of people in Canada at 38,232,593.[52]

Demographic statistics according to the World Population Review in 2022.[53]

  • One birth every 1 minute
  • One death every 2 minutes
  • One net migrant every 2 minutes
  • Net gain of one person every 2 minutes
 
Canada's fertility rate from 1929 to 2019. The rate fell below two in the 1970s.

In 2010, Canada's annual population growth rate was 1.238%, or a daily increase of 1,137 individuals.[41] Between 1867 and 2009 Canada's population grew by 979%.[41] Canada had the highest net migration rate (0.61%) of all G-8 member countries between 1994 and 2004.[41] Natural growth accounts for an annual increase of 137,626 persons, at a yearly rate of 0.413%.[41] Between 2001 and 2006, there were 1,446,080 immigrants and 237,418 emigrants, resulting in a net migration of just over 1.2 million people.[41] Since 2001 until 2010, immigration has ranged between 221,352 and 262,236 immigrants per annum.[54]

In 2023, Canada's population jumped by over 1 million people for the first time in the country's history. The population now stands at 39.5 million and is set to pass the 40 million mark later this year. The population growth has largely been fuelled by migrants who have been brought into the country to ease labour shortages.[55]

Population by years

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Prior to Canadian confederation in 1867 the population counts reflected only the former colonies and settlements and not the country to be as a whole with indigenous nations separated.[56]

Ephemeral European settlements

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Year Area/colony Population Notes[57]
1000 L'Anse aux Meadows
(Newfoundland)		 30 to 160 Archaeological evidence of a short-lived Norse settlement was found at L'Anse aux Meadows, on the northernmost tip of the island of Newfoundland (carbon dating estimate 990–1050 AD.[58]) There is no record of how many men and women lived at the site at any given time, however archaeological evidence of the dwellings suggest it had the capacity of supporting 30 to 160 individuals.[59]
1541 Cap-Rouge
(Quebec City)		 400 Jacques Cartier established Charlesbourg-Royal at Cap-Rouge on his third voyage. Even though scurvy was cured through the indigenous remedy (Thuja occidentalis infusion), the impression left is of a general misery with the effort being abandoned.[60] During the winter 35 of Cartier's men perished.[60]
1543 Cap-Rouge
(Quebec City)		 200 In 1542, Jean-François Roberval tried to re-invigorate the Charlesbourg-Royal colony at Cap-Rouge which Roberval renamed France-Roy, however after a set of disastrous winters the effort was abandoned.[61] En route to Charlesbourg-Royal, Roberval had abandoned his near-relative Marguerite de La Rocque with her lover on the "Isle of Demons" (now called Harrington Island), in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, as punishment for their affair.[62] The young man, their servant and baby died, but Marguerite survived to be rescued by fishermen and returned to France two years later.[62]
1583 St. John Bay
(Newfoundland)		 260 Humphrey Gilbert with 260 men planned a settlement; however, during exploration of the coast line a ship was lost containing many of the prospective colonists and their provisions.[63]
1598 Sable Island
(Nova Scotia)		 50 Marquis de La Roche-Mesgouez and 40 convicts (peasants and beggars) with 10 soldiers settled on Sable Island, but this colonization attempt failed, culminating in a revolt with only 11 survivors evacuated.[64][65]
1600 Tadoussac
(Quebec)		 16 François Gravé Du Pont with 16 men built a fur trading post at Tadoussac; however, only five of the men survived the winter before returning to France.[65]
1604 Saint Croix
(Maine)		 79 The St. Croix settlement of Maine was the first real attempt at a year-round base of operation in New France. The expedition was led by Pierre Du Gua de Monts with 79 settlers including François Gravé Du Pont, Royal cartographer Samuel de Champlain, the Baron de Poutrincourt, apothecary Louis Hébert, a priest Nicolas Aubry, and Mathieu de Costa a linguist.[66] The St. Croix settlement was abandoned the following summer for a new habitation at Port-Royal after 35 died of scurvy.[67]

Former colonies and territories

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The first in date of the Colonies which became successful, and which consequently marked the starting point of European settlements on what would be Canada , was the foundation of Port Royal, Acadia.[68] List of censuses.[69][70]

Year Area/colony Population[71][72][73] Notes[56]
1605 Port Royal
(Nova Scotia)		 44 The 44 colonists are surviving members of 79 from the now abandoned St. Croix settlement of Maine.[65] However, the habitation at Port-Royal was also abandoned and left in the care of the local Mi'kmaq.[67] The settlement was later moved upstream and to the south bank of the Annapolis River, keeping the name Port-Royal and becoming the capital of Acadia.[74]
1608 Quebec City 28 Samuel de Champlain establishes the colony with 28 settlers.[65] Half of the men that winter the first year die of scurvy or starvation.[75] Nevertheless, new settlers arrive resulting in Quebec being the first permanent settlement, and also the capital of, the French colony of Canada.
1610 Cuper's Cove
(Newfoundland)		 40 The Newfoundland Colony is established by John Guy his brother Phillip and his brother-in-law William Colston with 39 colonists who spend the winter of 1610–1611 at Cuper's Cove.[76] By the fall of 1613 sixteen structures are completed by about 60 settlers on the site.[77][78] As England tried to create a foothold in the north, other settlements were established at Bristol's Hope, Renews, New Cambriol, South Falkland and Avalon, an area that became known as the English Shore. However the majority of the population did not stay year round returning in the spring of each year. Over the next 100 years the English colonies of Newfoundland grew very slowly, and had only 3,000 permanent residents by the 1720s.[79]
1629 Quebec city 117 *90 wintering belonged to Kirke's English Expedition that had captured the city.[80] Under brief British control the city begins to grow and be fortified.[81] Prior to 1632 only eight births were recorded among the 60 to 70 permanent European settlers.[81][82] The first European child born in Quebec had been Hélène Desportes, in 1620.[83]
1641 New France 240 De facto population of Canada (New France) and Acadia, now situated partly in the future United States.[82]
1642 Fort Ville-Marie
(Old Montreal)		 50 New colony with the majority of immigrants coming directly from France led by Paul de Chomedey and Jeanne Mance, a lay woman.[84]
1666 Canada (New France) 3,215 The 1660s marked the only real "wave" of French settlers arriving until the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.[85] Following the initial wave of French settlers natural growth was the main contributing factor to population growth.[81] Quebec city 2,100, Trois-Rivières 455, Montreal 655. (Comprising 528 families with 2,034 men and 1,181 women. Professionals included 3 notaries, 3 schoolmasters, 3 locksmiths, 4 bailiffs, 5 surgeons, 5 bakers, 8 barrel makers, 9 millers, 18 official merchants, 27 joiners, and 36 carpenters.)[56]
1677 Indigenous
Nations		 10,750 Estimated indigenous population in and around New France territory 10,750, including 2,150 warriors. (Mohawks 5 villages, 96 lodges, 300 warriors – Oneidas 1 village, 100 lodges, 200 warriors – Onondagas 2 villages, 164 lodges, 350 warriors – Cayugas 3 villages, 100 lodges, 300 warriors – Senecas 4 villages, 324 lodges, 1,000 warriors).[19]
1679 Acadia 515 Majority are from the Poitou region of France.
1681 New France 9,677 New France sees new settlements develop as residents leave Quebec City (population 1,345) and Trois-Rivières (150) with Montreal gaining influence (population 1,418).[56]
1687 Newfoundland 663 French population only.
1695 New France 13,639 Population of Saint John River New Brunswick 49.
1698 New France 15,355 English population of Newfoundland at the time 1,500.

18th century

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Year Area/colony Population[73][86] Notes[56]
1705 Newfoundland 520 French population only
1706 New France 16,417 Covering territory that is now situated partly in the United States of America and partly in Canada.
1712 New France 18,440 Married – men 2,786, women 2,588. Unmarried – males 6,716, females 6,350.[56]
1718 New France 22,983 Married – men 3,662, women 3,926. Unmarried – males 7,911, females 7,484.[56]
1720 St.John Island
(Prince Edward Island)		 100 17 families
1730 New France 33,682 Married – men 6,050, women 5,728. Unmarried – males 11,314, females 10,590.[56]
1736 Indigenous
Nations		 17,575 Estimated population of First Nations in New France that are now within Canada – Abenakis 2,950 – Algonquins, Ottawas, Potawatomi, Saulteaux and Crees 11,475 – Wyandot-Huron 1,300 – Iroquois 1,850.[19]
1737 New France 39,970 Married – men 7,378, women 6,804. Unmarried – males 13,330, females 12,458.[56]
1741 Newfoundland 6,000 English population only.
1749 Nova Scotia 2,544 Married – men, 509; women 509. Unmarried – men, 660; women, 3. Children-boys, 228; girls, 216. Servants-men, 277; women, 142.[56]
1749 Île-Royale
(Cape Breton)		 1,000 French population only.
1749 Acadian Mainland (New Brunswick) 1,000 French population only.
1749 Acadian Peninsula 13,000 French population only.
1749 St. John Island
(Prince Edward Island)		 1,000 French population only.
1752 Acadia (non-French) 4,203 British and German population only. Men over sixteen years old, 574; women over sixteen years old, 607. Children boys, 1,899; children girls, 1,123.
1760 New France 70,000 Expulsion of the Acadians three-quarters of the Acadian population of 18,000 forcibly relocated between 1755 and 1764.[87]
1765 Province of Quebec (1763–91) 69,810 French and English populations.
1775 Province of Quebec (1763–91) 90,000 French and English populations.
1785 Newfoundland 10,244 French and English populations.
1790 Nova Scotia 30,000 French and English populations.
1797 St. John Island
(Prince Edward Island)		 4,500 French and English populations.

19th century

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Year Area/Province Population[88]
1806 New Brunswick 35,000
1806 Prince Edward Island 9,676
1806 Upper Canada 70,718
1806 Lower Canada 250,000
1806 Newfoundland 26,505
1807 Nova Scotia 65,000
1822 Prince Edward Island 24,600
1823 Newfoundland 52,157
1824 Upper Canada 150,066
1824 New Brunswick 74,176
1825 Upper Canada 157,923
1825 Lower Canada 479,288
1831 Lower Canada 553,134
1832 Upper Canada 263,554
1832 Newfoundland 59,280
1833 Prince Edward Island 32,292
1844 Canada East 697,084
1845 Newfoundland 96,295
1846 Assiniboia (North-West Territories) 4,871
1848 Canada West 725,879
1861 Colony of Vancouver Island 3,024
1869 Newfoundland 146,536
1871 British Columbia 36,247
1871 Manitoba 25,228
1871 Ontario 1,620,851
1871 Quebec 1,191,516
1871 New Brunswick 285,594
1871 Nova Scotia 387,800
1871 Prince Edward Island 94,021
1871 Northwest Territories 48,000
Year Canada as a whole Population Provinces/Area[19][18][20]
1822 Indigenous population 283,500 British North America 283,500
1871 Indigenous population 102,358 Prince Edward Island 323 – Nova Scotia 1,666 – New Brunswick 1,403 – Quebec 6,988 – Ontario 12,978 – British Columbia 23,000 – Rupert's Land 33,500 – Manitoba 500 and Labrador and the Arctic Watersheds 22,000
1885 Indigenous population 131,952 Prince Edward Island 292 - Nova Scotia 2,197 - New Brunswick 1,524 - Quebec 12,023 - Ontario 16,892 - British Columbia 39,011 - Eastern Rupert's Land 4,016 - Manitoba and Northwest Territories 33,959 - Peace River district 2,038 - Athabaska district 8,000 - McKenzie district 7,000 - Labrador (Canadian interior) 1,000 - Arctic coast 4,000

Canada as a whole since confederation

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Census data by years

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Indigenous Population History in Canada
YearPop.±%
1822283,500—    
1871102,358−63.9%
1881108,547+6.0%
1885131,952+21.6%
1901147,941+12.1%
1911105,611−28.6%
1921114,083+8.0%
1931128,899+13.0%
1941160,937+24.9%
1951165,607+2.9%
1961220,121+32.9%
1971312,765+42.1%
1981491,460+57.1%
1986711,725+44.8%
19911,016,340+42.8%
1996799,010−21.4%
2001976,305+22.2%
20061,172,790+20.1%
20111,400,690+19.4%
20161,673,785+19.5%
20211,807,250+8.0%
Source: Statistics Canada
[19][91][92]: 5&6 [93]: 3 [94]: 1 [95]: 17 [96][97][98][99][100][101][18][20]
Note: Population decline between 1991 and 1996 censuses attributed to change in criteria in census count; "the 1996 Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples used a more restrictive definition of Aboriginal".[102]
Historical population
YearPop.±%
18713,689,257—    
18814,324,810+17.2%
18914,833,239+11.8%
19015,371,315+11.1%
19117,206,643+34.2%
19218,787,949+21.9%
193110,374,196+18.1%
194111,506,655+10.9%
195114,009,429+21.8%
196118,238,247+30.2%
197121,568,311+18.3%
197622,992,604+6.6%
198124,343,181+5.9%
198625,309,331+4.0%
199127,296,859+7.9%
199628,846,761+5.7%
200130,007,094+4.0%
200631,612,897+5.4%
201133,476,688+5.9%
201635,151,728+5.0%
202136,991,981+5.2%
[103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111]

Data projections

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In 2006, Statistics Canada projected for the decade 2021 to 2031 the population to grow by more than 5 million, or more than 10%.[112] Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 per cent overall growth.[9] The 2016 Canadian census counted a total population of 35.1 million,[7] or 1.5 million under the 2006 projection.

In October 2020, the Trudeau government announced its plans to bring in more than 1.2 million immigrants over the subsequent three years, to catch up to the high-growth scenario.[113]

Population projections[112]
High-growth scenario
YearPop.±%
201133,470,000—    
201636,540,000+9.2%
202139,110,000+7.0%
202641,750,000+6.8%
203144,430,000+6.4%
203647,130,000+6.1%
204149,900,000+5.9%
204652,910,000+6.0%
205156,070,000+6.0%
205659,400,000+5.9%
206163,000,000+6.1%

Modern population distribution

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Population density of Canadian provinces and territories, 2021
  >25 people/km2
  15-24.9 people/km2
  10-14.9 people/km2
  5-9.9 people/km2
  1-4.9 people/km2
  <1 people/km2

By province and territory

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Main article: Population of Canada by province and territory

By cities and municipalities

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Main article: List of the largest population centres in Canada

First Nations

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See also

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Notes

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References

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  1. ^ McMurry, Peter H.; Shepherd, Marjorie F.; Vickery, James S. (2004). Particulate Matter Science for Policy Makers: A NARSTO Assessment. Cambridge University Press. p. 391. ISBN 978-0-521-84287-7.
  2. ^ "Environment – Greenhouse Gases (Greenhouse Gas Emissions per Person)". Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. 2010. Archived from the original on 27 February 2014. Retrieved 23 June 2010.
  3. ^ "Population estimates quarterly". Statistics Canada. 27 March 2024. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
  4. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (11 July 2018). "Canada's population clock (real-time model)". www150.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  5. ^ "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population". 9 February 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2022.
  6. ^ "Canadians in Context – Population Size and Growth". Human Resources and Skills Development Canada. 2010. Archived from the original on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2010.
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  10. ^ "Census Program Data Viewer dashboard". Statistics Canada. 9 February 2022. Retrieved 3 February 2024.
  11. ^ Michael R. Haines; Richard H. Steckel (2000). A Population History of North America. Cambridge University Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-521-49666-7.
  12. ^ a b Herbert C. Northcott; Donna Marie Wilson (2008). Dying And Death in Canada. University of Toronto Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 978-1-55111-873-4.
  13. ^ Michael R. Haines; Richard H. Steckel (2000). A Population History of North America. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-521-49666-7.
  14. ^ Garrick Alan Bailey; William C ... Sturtevant; Smithsonian Institution (U S ) (2008). Handbook of North American Indians: Indians in Contemporary Society. Government Printing Office. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-16-080388-8.
  15. ^ David L. Preston (2009). The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667-1783. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-8032-2549-7.
  16. ^ William G. Dean; Geoffrey J. Matthews (1998). Concise Historical Atlas of Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8020-4203-3.
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  20. ^ a b c Donaldson, Thomas (1886). The George Catlin Indian Gallery in the U.S. National Museum. Washington: Government Printing Office. pp. 910–915.
  21. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (25 October 2017). "The Daily — Aboriginal peoples in Canada: Key results from the 2016 Census". www150.statcan.gc.ca.
  22. ^ "Canada's Indigenous population". Statistics Canada. 21 June 2023. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
  23. ^ "Aboriginal Peoples in Canada: First Nations People, Métis and Inuit". Statistics Canada. 2012.
  24. ^ David L. Preston (2009). The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667-1783. U of Nebraska Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8032-2549-7.
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  26. ^ Thomas F. McIlwraith; Edward K. Muller (2001). North America: The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-4616-3960-2.
  27. ^ a b Yves Landry (1993). "Fertility in France and New France: The Distinguishing Characteristics of Canadian Behavior in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries". Social Science History. 17 (4). Université de Montréal: 577–592, quote p 586. doi:10.1017/S0145553200016928. JSTOR 1171305. S2CID 147651557.
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  30. ^ "Estimated population of Canada, 1605 to present". Statistics Canada. 2009. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
  31. ^ Peter M. Leslie (1988). Ethnonationalism in a Federal State: The Case of Canada. Queen's University. p. 6 note 5. ISBN 978-0-88911-456-2.
  32. ^ Louis Hartz (1969). The Founding of New Societies: Studies in the History of the United States, Latin America, South Africa, Canada, and Australia. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 231. ISBN 0-547-97109-5.
  33. ^ Liberty's Exiles: American Loyalists in the Revolutionary World. Random House. 2012. p. 357. ISBN 9781400075478.
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