The Khengkha language (Dzongkha ྨཕགལཔམཕ), or Kheng,[1] is an East Bodish language spoken by ~40,000 native speakers worldwide,[2] in the Zhemgang, Trongsa, and Mongar districts of south–central Bhutan.[3]
| Kheng | |
|---|---|
| ྨཕགལཔམཕ | |
| Native to | Bhutan |
| Ethnicity | Kheng |
Native speakers | 50,000 (2003)[1] Total speakers: 65,000[1] |
| Tibetan script | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | xkf |
| Glottolog | khen1241 |
| ELP | Khengkha |
Classification
editKhengkha is a dialect found in the small Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan. Khengkha is part of the larger branch of Sino-Tibetan language family but falls into the subcategories of: Tibetio-Burman, Western Tubeto-Burman, Bodish, East Bodish, Bumthang, and Khengkha.
Geographical distribution
editKhengkha is an East Bodish language spoken in the south-central districts of Bhutan. Khengkha is mainly found in the Sarpang district but can also be found in southwest Mongar district, rural areas in southeast Trongsa district and in Zhemgang district.[1]
Dialects
editThe three main dialects in Bumthang district are Bumthap (Lower Kheng), Khempa (Middle Kheng), and Kurtop (Upper Kheng). Comprehension between the three dialects differs as Bumthap is the most similarly related language, however conversation with Kurthop is difficult.
Phonology
editConsonants
edit| Labial | Alveolar | Post- alveolar |
Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | (ȵ) | ŋ | ||
| Plosive | voiceless | p | t | k | ʔ | |
| aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | kʰ | |||
| voiced | b | d | ɡ | |||
| Affricate | voiceless | ts | tɕ ~ tʃ | |||
| aspirated | tsʰ | tɕʰ ~ tʃʰ | ||||
| voiced | dz | dʑ ~ dʒ | ||||
| Fricative | voiceless | s | ɕ ~ ʃ | h | ||
| voiced | z | ʑ ~ ʒ | ||||
| Rhotic | r ~ ɹ | |||||
| Approximant | central | w | j | |||
| lateral | l | |||||
- /r/ can be heard as either a trill [r] or an approximant [ɹ] in free variation.
- Alveolo-palatal sounds /tɕ, tɕʰ, dʑ, ɕ, ʑ/ can also range to palato-alveolar sounds [tʃ, tʃʰ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ] in free variation.
| Labial | Alveolar | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | p | t | k | ʔ |
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | |
| Fricative | (s) | |||
| Rhotic | r | |||
| Approximant | (l) |
Vowels
edit| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Close | i | u | |
| Mid | e | (ø̈) | o |
| Open | a | ||
| Diphthong | ai | ||
- A centralized rounded [ø̈] does appear, but is mostly borrowed from words in Dzongkha.
- /a/ can appear slightly back as [ʌ] or [ɑ] within diphthongs or codas.
- /i, e/ can be heard as [ɪ, ɛ] when in short form.[4]
Grammar
editIn most Khengkha sentences, it only marks grammatical relations through word order. The subject constituent precedes the object and the verb constituents follow it. Khengkha follows the same typology as Dzongkha. The example below demonstrates how the grammatical roles of each constituent are marked only by the position relative to the verb:[1]
Ngai
My
meng
name
S
Dorji
Dorji
O
wenn.
is.
V
"My name is Dorji."
When nouns are addressed in Khengkha there are two ways it can be written, depending on the other.
- Relatives before noun heads or articles.
- Adjectives after noun heads.
Khengkha is an oral language without a writing system, making tones and nuances important during communication.[1]
Language Use
editKhengkha is a vigorous language in limited areas. Khengkha is not allowed to be taught in schools around Bhutan, making it only spoken at home, for commerce, local politics, and traditional religion. Due to the increasing modernization of Bhutan, there are negative attitudes towards those who speak Kheng instead of Dzongkha or the English. Lower Kheng is considered to be spoken backward, while Middle Kheng is seen as more prestigious. Middle Kheng region is the strongest and most developed economically, while lower Kheng is least developed.[1]
Language Development
editSince Khengkha is an oral language there is a low literacy rate for native Khengkha speakers in Dzongkha. There is literacy rate of 20% in Dzongkha.[1]
Common phrases
editAs there is no official English romanization of Dzongkha script, many words are spelled out phonetically. Therefore, there may be multiple spellings of the same word.
| English | Khengkha | Dzongkha |
|---|---|---|
| Hello | Kuzu zangpo | Kuzu zangpo |
| How are you? | Wed ato nag yo? | Choe gadey be yoe? |
| My name is Dorji. | Ngai meng Dorji wenn | Ngegi ming Dorji 'ing. |
| It was nice meeting you. | Nga wed domsay nyeng gas a. | Chö dang je di sem ga-i. |
| Okay, I will see you again. | Kai nyeng dom. | Yaya, lok shu ley jel gey. |
| Sorry | Nyeng ma ja yai | Gom ma thay |
| Who | Aii yo | Ga |
| What | Ja yo | Gaci |
| When | Arba | Nam |
| Where | Aucu ta say/ Aun | Gate |
| Why | Jai bu say/ Ato bu say | Gaci bey |
| How | Ato | Gade |
| Where are you from? | Yoe ah nga yo? | Chö 'ü: gate le mo? |
| I am from Bumthang. | Nga Bumthang do when. | Nga Bumthang le 'ing. |
| I am thirsty. | Nga ka kampa | Kha khom chi. |
| I am hungry. | Nga tog pai say sa. | Toh ke chi. |
| Morning | Nga si | Droba |
| Afternoon | Nyen cha | Nyin-che |
| Evening | So suitlas | Chiru |
| Night | San | Numo |
English translation of the conversation:
Dorji: Hi, my name is Dorji.
Sonam: Hi, my name is Sonam. Where are you from?
Dorji: I’m from Zhemgang.
Sonam: What are you doing nowadays?
Dorji: I’m studying.
Sonam: I’m happy to meet you.
Dorji: I’m also happy to meet you. Let’s meet again.
Sonam: Okay.
Numerical
editKhengkha counting system is written in Dzongkha script but pronounced differently. Below is a comparison of Khengkha and Dzongkha numbers.
| # | Khengkha | Dzongkha | |||
| 1 | ༡ | Thak | ༡ | Ci: | |
| 2 | ༢ | Zoom | ༢ | Nyi: | |
| 3 | ༣ | Sum | ༣ | Sum | |
| 4 | ༤ | Blay | ༤ | Zhi | |
| 5 | ༥ | Ya-Nga | ༥ | Nga | |
| 6 | ༦ | Grog | ༦ | Dru | |
| 7 | ༧ | Ngee | ༧ | Dün | |
| 8 | ༨ | Jat | ༨ | Gä | |
| 9 | ༩ | Dogo | ༩ | Gu | |
| 10 | ༡༠ | Choe | ༡༠ | Cutham | |
| 11 | ༡༡ | Chowouray | ༡༡ | Cuci: | |
| 12 | ༡༢ | Chowazone | ༡༢ | Cu-'nyi | |
| 13 | ༡༣ | Chowasum | ༡༣ | Cusum | |
| 14 | ༡༤ | Choebloy | ༡༤ | Cuzhi | |
| 15 | ༡༥ | Choenga | ༡༥ | Ce-'nga | |
| 16 | ༡༦ | Choegrok | ༡༦ | Cudru | |
| 17 | ༡༧ | Choerngyee | ༡༧ | Cupdün | |
| 18 | ༡༨ | Cheorjat | ༡༨ | Copgä | |
| 19 | ༡༩ | Choedogo | ༡༩ | Cugu | |
| 20 | ༢༠ | Nyeesho | ༢༠ | Khe Ci:/ Nyishu | |
| 30 | ༣༠ | Khaidehichoe | ༣༠ | Sumchu | |
| 40 | ༤༠ | Khaizone | ༤༠ | Zhipcu | |
| 50 | ༥༠ | Khaizone Choe | ༥༠ | Ngapcu | |
| 60 | ༦༠ | Khaisum | ༦༠ | Drupcu | |
| 70 | ༧༠ | Khaisum ni Choe | ༧༠ | Düncu | |
| 80 | ༨༠ | Khaiblay | ༨༠ | Gäpcu | |
| 90 | ༩༠ | Khaiblay ni Choe | ༩༠ | Gupcu | |
| 100 | ༡༠༠ | Khai Nga | ༡༠༠ | Cikja | |
| 200 | ༢༠༠ | Kai Choe | ༢༠༠ | Nyija | |
| 300 | ༣༠༠ | Khai Choe Nga | ༣༠༠ | Sumja | |
| 400 | ༤༠༠ | Nyeeshy Theg/Shipja | ༤༠༠ | Zhipja | |
| 500 | ༥༠༠ | Ngabja | ༥༠༠ | Ngapja | |
| 600 | ༦༠༠ | Drukja | ༦༠༠ | Drupja | |
| 700 | ༧༠༠ | Dinja | ༧༠༠ | Dünja | |
| 800 | ༨༠༠ | Nyeesho Zone/Gopja | ༨༠༠ | Gäpja | |
| 900 | ༩༠༠ | Gupja | ༩༠༠ | Gupja | |
| 1000 | ༡༠༠༠ | Thonthra Theg/Chigtong | ༡༠༠༠ | Cikthong |
| External audio | |
|---|---|
Writing system
editKhengkha is an oral language without its own written system. But it unofficially borrows from the Tibetan script and Uchen style of writing. Khengkha and Dzongkha numerical script are written the same.
Related languages
editHistorically, Kheng and its speakers have had close contact with speakers of the Kurtöp, Nupbi and Bumthang languages, nearby languages of central and eastern Bhutan, to the extent that they may be considered part of a wider collection of "Bumthang languages".[5][6][7]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ a b c d e f g h Kheng at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)
- ^ "Did you know Khengkha is vulnerable?". Endangered Languages. Retrieved 2015-10-28.
- ^ van Driem, George L. (1993). "Language Policy in Bhutan". London: SOAS. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-11-01. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
- ^ Ikeda, Takumi (2021). An Introduction to Khengkha: A Language of Central Bhutan. Nagano, Yasuhiko and Ikeda, Takumi (eds.), Link Languages and Archetypes in Tibeto-Burman: Kyoto: Institute for Research in Humanities, Kyoto University. pp. 71–119.
- ^ Schicklgruber, Christian (1998). Françoise Pommaret-Imaeda (ed.). Bhutan: Mountain Fortress of the Gods. Shambhala. pp. 50, 53. ISBN 978-0-906026-44-1.
- ^ van Driem, George (2007). "Endangered Languages of Bhutan and Sikkim: East Bodish Languages". In Moseley, Christopher (ed.). Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages. Routledge. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-7007-1197-0.
- ^ van Driem, George (2007). Matthias Brenzinger (ed.). Language diversity endangered. Trends in linguistics: Studies and monographs, Mouton Reader. Vol. 181. Walter de Gruyter. p. 312. ISBN 978-3-11-017050-4.
Bibliography
edit- Yangdzom, Deki; Arkesteijn, Marten (n.d.). Khengkha Lessonbook: Khengkha-English / English-Khengkha Wordlist. Thimphu: SNV, Bhutan.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: year (link) - van Driem, George (2001). Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region: Containing an Introduction to the Symbiotic Theory of Language. Brill. p. 1412. ISBN 90-04-12062-9.
- van Driem, George (2007). "Endangerd Languages of Bhutan and Sikkim: East Bodish Languages". In Moseley, Christopher (ed.). Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages. Routledge. pp. 295, 331. ISBN 978-0-7007-1197-0.
- Namgyel, Singye. The Language Web of Bhutan. Thimphu: KMT.
- van Driem, George L; Karma Tshering (1998). Dzongkha. Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region. Leiden: Research School CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies. ISBN 90-5789-002-X.