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Eagle

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This article is about the bird. For other uses, see Eagle (disambiguation) and Eagles (disambiguation).

Eagle is the common name for the golden eagle, bald eagle, and other birds of prey in the family of the Accipitridae. Eagles belong to several groups of genera, some of which are closely related. True eagles comprise the genus Aquila. Most of the 68 species of eagles are from Eurasia and Africa.[1] Outside this area, just 14 species can be found—two in North America, nine in Central and South America, and three in Australia.

Eagle
From left to right, top row first: golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), brown snake eagle (Circaetus cinereus), solitary eagle (Buteogallus solitarius), black eagle (Ictinaetus malaiensis) and African fish eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer).
From left to right, top row first: golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), brown snake eagle (Circaetus cinereus), solitary eagle (Buteogallus solitarius), black eagle (Ictinaetus malaiensis) and African fish eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer).
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Accipitriformes
Family: Accipitridae
Species

See text

Eagles are not a natural group but denote essentially any kind of bird of prey large enough to hunt sizeable (about 50 cm long or more overall) vertebrates.

Etymology

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The word "eagle" is borrowed into English from Anglo-Norman: eagle and Middle French: aigle, both derived ultimately from Latin: aquila ("eagle"). It is cognate with terms such as French: aigle, Portuguese: águia and Spanish: águila.[2] It is broadly synonymous with the less common English term "erne" or "earn", deriving from Middle English: ern, from Old English: earn, in which it acts as the usual word for the bird. The Old English term is turn derived from Proto-Germanic: *arnuz and is cognate with other synonymous words in Germanic languages such as Swedish: örn, German: Aar and Gothic: ara. Through the Proto-Indo-European root, it is further related to words such as Greek: ὄρνις ("bird") and Lithuanian: erelis ("eagle"). Although "erne" can be used to refer to any eagle, it is most commonly used for the golden eagle or sea-eagle.[3][4]

Description

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Eagles are large, powerfully-built birds of prey, with heavy heads and beaks. Even the smallest eagles, such as the booted eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus), which is comparable in size to a common buzzard (Buteo buteo) or red-tailed hawk (B. jamaicensis), have relatively longer and more evenly broad wings, and more direct, faster flight, despite the reduced size of their aerodynamic feathers. Most eagles are larger than any other raptors, apart from some vultures. The smallest species of eagle is the Great Nicobar serpent eagle (Spilornis klossi), at 450 g (1 lb) and 40 cm (16 in). The largest species are discussed below. Like all birds of prey, eagles have very large hooked beaks for ripping flesh from their prey, strong, muscular legs, and powerful talons.

The beak is typically heavier than that of most other birds of prey. Eagles' eyes are extremely powerful. It is estimated that the wedge-tailed eagle has a visual acuity twice that of a typical human.[5][6][7] This acuity enables eagles to spot potential prey from a very long distance. This keen eyesight is primarily attributed to their extremely large pupils which ensure minimal diffraction (scattering) of the incoming light. Like most diurnal raptors, eagles have little ability to see ultraviolet light.[8] The female of all known species of eagles is larger than the male.[9][10]

Eagles normally build their nests, called eyries, in tall trees or on high cliffs. Many species lay two eggs, but the older, larger chick frequently kills its younger sibling once it has hatched. The parents take no action to stop the killing.[11][12] It is said[by whom?] that eagles fly above clouds but this is not true.[citation needed] Eagles fly during storms and glide from the wind's pressure. This saves the bird's energy. Due to the size and power of many eagle species, they are ranked at the top of the food chain as apex predators in the avian world. The type of prey varies by genus. The Haliaeetus and Icthyophaga eagles prefer to capture fish, though the species in the former often capture various animals, especially other water birds, and are powerful kleptoparasites of other birds. The snake and serpent eagles of the genera Circaetus, Terathopius, and Spilornis predominantly prey on the great diversity of snakes found in the tropics of Africa and Asia. The eagles of the genus Aquila are often the top birds of prey in open habitats, taking almost any medium-sized vertebrate they can catch. Where Aquila eagles are absent, other eagles, such as the buteonine black-chested buzzard-eagle of South America, may assume the position of top raptorial predator in open areas. Many other eagles, including the species-rich genus Spizaetus, live predominantly in woodlands and forests. These eagles often target various arboreal or ground-dwelling mammals and birds, which are often unsuspectingly ambushed in such dense, knotty environments. Hunting techniques differ among the species and genera, with some individual eagles having engaged in quite varied techniques based on their environment and prey at any given time. Most eagles grab prey without landing and take flight with it, so the prey can be carried to a perch and torn apart.[13]

The bald eagle is noted for having flown with the heaviest load verified to be carried by any flying bird, since one eagle flew with a 6.8 kg (15 lb) mule deer fawn.[14][15] However, a few eagles may target prey considerably heavier than themselves; such prey is too heavy to fly with, thus it is either eaten at the site of the kill or taken in pieces back to a perch or nest. Golden and crowned eagles have killed ungulates weighing up to 30 kg (66 lb) and a martial eagle even killed a 37 kg (82 lb) duiker, 7–8 times heavier than the preying eagle.[13][16] Authors on birds David Allen Sibley, Pete Dunne, and Clay Sutton described the behavioral difference between hunting eagles and other birds of prey thus (in this case the bald and golden eagles as compared to other North American raptors):[17]

 
An Eagle named in honor of Abraham Lincoln and was the mascot of 8th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment, at the time of the U.S. Centennial

They have at least one singular characteristic. It has been observed that most birds of prey look back over their shoulders before striking prey (or shortly thereafter); predation is after all a two-edged sword. All hawks seem to have this habit, from the smallest kestrel to the largest Ferruginous – but not the Eagles.

Among the eagles are some of the largest birds of prey: only the condors and some of the Old World vultures are markedly larger. It is regularly debated[according to whom?] which should be considered the largest species of eagle. They could be measured variously in total length, body mass, or wingspan. Different lifestyle needs among various eagles result in variable measurements from species to species. For example, many forest-dwelling eagles, including the very large harpy eagle, have relatively short wingspans, a feature necessary for being able to maneuver in quick, short bursts through densely forested habitats.[13] Eagles in the genus Aquila, found almost exclusively in open country, are noted for their ability to soar, and have relatively long wings for their size.[13]

These lists of the top five eagles are based on weight, length, and wingspan, respectively. Unless otherwise noted by reference, the figures listed are the median reported for each measurement in the guide Raptors of the World[18] in which only measurements that could be personally verified by the authors were listed.[13]

Rank Common name Scientific name Body mass
1 Philippine eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi 8.3 kg (18+1⁄4 lb) (Average Weight)
2 Steller's sea eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus 7.4 kg (16+1⁄4 lb) (Average Weight)
3 Harpy eagle Harpia harpyja 6.35 kg (14 lb) (Average Weight)
4 White-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla 4.8 kg (10+1⁄2 lb) (Average Weight) [19]
5 Martial eagle Polemaetus bellicosus 4.6 kg (10+1⁄4 lb)[19] (Average Weight)
Rank Common name Scientific name Total length
1 Philippine eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi 100 cm (3 ft 3 in)[20]
2 Harpy eagle Harpia harpyja 98.5 cm (3 ft 3 in)
3 Wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax 95.5 cm (3 ft 2 in)
4 Steller's sea eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus 95 cm (3 ft 1 in)
5 Crowned eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus 87.5 cm (2 ft 10 in)
Rank Common name Scientific name Median wingspan
1 White-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla 218.5 cm (7 ft 2 in)
2 Steller's sea eagle Haliaeetus pelagicus 212.5 cm (7 ft 0 in)
3 Wedge-tailed eagle Aquila audax 210 cm (6 ft 11 in)[21][22]
4 Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos 207 cm (6 ft 9 in)
5 Martial eagle Polemaetus bellicosus 206.5 cm (6 ft 9 in)

Habitat

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The eagles are generally distributed in all types of habitats and nearly all parts of the world. The birds can be found in northern tundra to tropical rainforests and deserts. In North America, bald eagles and golden eagles are very common.

Distribution

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Groups

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Eagles are often informally divided into four groups.[a][25]

The snake eagles are placed in the subfamily Circaetinae. The fish eagles, booted eagles, and harpy eagles have traditionally been placed in the subfamily Buteoninae together with the buzzard-hawks (buteonine hawks) and harriers. Some authors may treat these groups as tribes of the Buteoninae; Lerner & Mindell[26] proposed separating the eagle groups into their own subfamilies of Accipitridae.

Fish eagles

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Sea eagles or fish eagles take fish as a large part of their diets, either fresh or as carrion.

Proposed subfamily Haliaeetinae. Genera: Haliaeetus, Icthyophaga.

Some authors include Gypohierax angolensis, the "vulturine fish eagle" (also called the palm-nut vulture) in this group.[25] However, genetic analyses indicate it is related to a grouping of Neophron–Gypaetus–Eutriorchis (Egyptian vulture, bearded vulture (lammergeier), and Madagascar serpent eagle).[27]

The fish eagles have a close genetic relationship with Haliastur and Milvus; the whole group is only distantly related to the Buteo group.[27]

Fish eagles exist in every continent throughout the world, except for South America.[28]

Although fish eagles can be found in many different places around the world, they have been classified as "Near Threatened". Reasons such as overfishing, pollution, habitat destruction, and the use of pesticides have contributed to the species' rapid population drop.[29]

Booted eagles

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The booted eagle is a group of eagle that typically migrates across the Sahara Desert to Europe. It usually reaches Europe around the beginning of March and leaves by the end of September. It's interesting to note that these types of eagles usually mate with the same partner and return to the same areas years later. Female booted eagles usually lay 1-4 eggs, which promptly hatch after 37 to 40 days. Researchers estimate that there are between 3600 and 6900 pairs of booted eagles in Europe, which are mostly situated in the Iberian Peninsula.[30]

For the species Hieraaetus pennatus (Aquila pennata), see booted eagle.
Main article: Booted eagles
 
Booted eagle in flight

Booted eagles or "true eagles"[25][31] have feathered tarsi (lower legs).

Tribe Aquililae or proposed subfamily Aquilinae. Genera: Aquila, Hieraaetus; Spizaetus, Oroaetus, Spizastur; Nisaetus;[27] Ictinaetus, Lophoaetus; Polemaetus; and Stephanoaetus.[25][31]

See comments under eagle species for changes to the composition of these genera.

Snake eagles

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Most snake or serpent eagles, as the name suggests, primarily prey on snakes.

  • Subfamily Circaetinae. Genera: Circaetus, Spilornis, Dryotriorchis, Terathopius.[25]
  • Eutriorchis (subfamily Gypaetinae or Circaetinae).

Despite filling the niche of a snake eagle, genetic studies suggest that the Madagascar serpent eagle (Eutriorchis) is not related to them.[27]

Over several decades, a great deal of research has been done on the  Snake-eagle's diet, which is mainly made up of reptiles, especially snakes. When it comes to catching snakes, it is generally accepted that the bird exhibits generalist feeding behavior, which means it does not hunt down specific types of snakes but rather feeds on them depending on their availability in the wild.[32]

Harpy eagles

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Harpy eagles[25] or "giant forest eagles"[24] are large eagles that inhabit tropical forests. The group contains two to six species, depending on the author. Although these birds occupy similar niches and have traditionally been grouped, they are not all related: the solitary eagles are related to the black hawks and the Philippine eagle to the snake eagles.

Species

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Martial eagle in Namibia
 
Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) in Southern Philippines
 
Wedge-tailed eagle in Australia
 
Eastern imperial eagle in Israel

Major new research into eagle taxonomy suggests that the important genera Aquila and Hieraaetus are not composed of nearest relatives, and it is likely that a reclassification of these genera will soon take place, with some species being moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus.[26]

Family Accipitridae

Main article: Accipitridae
 
Short-toed snake eagle in flight

In culture

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Eagles, a Chinese Ming period painting; Located at the National Palace Museum

Etymology

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The modern English term for the bird is derived from Latin: aquila by way of French: aigle. The origin of aquila is unknown, but it is believed to possibly derive from aquilus (meaning dark-colored, swarthy, or blackish) as a reference to the plumage of eagles.

Old English used the term earn, related to Scandinavia's ørn/örn. It is similar to other Indo-European terms for "bird" or "eagle", including Greek: ὄρνις (ornís), Russian: орёл (orël), and Welsh: eryr.

In the southern part of Finland, near the Gulf of Finland, is the town of Kotka, which literally means "eagle", while the town of L'Aquila in the central part of Italy literally means "the eagle".

 
The sculpture of eagle at the top of the fountain at Plac Orła Białego in Szczecin, Poland

In Britain before 1678, eagle referred specifically to the golden eagle, with the other native species, the white-tailed eagle, being known as erne. The modern name "golden eagle" for aquila chrysaetos was introduced by the naturalist John Ray.[33]

The village of Eagle in Lincolnshire, England, has nothing to do with the bird; its name is derived from the Old English words for "oak" and "wood" (compare Oakley).[34]

Religion and spirituality

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Representation of an eagle at Rio Carnival, 2014
 
Garuda, the vahana (mount) of Vishnu, depicted with an eagle's beak and wings

In the ancient Sumerian mythology, the mythical king Etana was said to have been carried into heaven by an eagle.[35] Classical writers such as Lucan and Pliny the Elder claimed that the eagle was able to look directly at the sun, and that they forced their fledglings to do the same. Those that blinked would be cast from the nest. This belief persisted until the Medieval era.[36]

The eagle is the patron animal of the ancient Greek god Zeus. In particular, Zeus was said to have taken the form of an eagle in order to abduct Ganymede, and there are numerous artistic depictions of the eagle Zeus bearing Ganymede aloft, from Classical times up to the present (see illustrations in the Ganymede (mythology) page.)[37]

Eagles appear metaphorically in many translations of the Old Testament. God is spoken of as carrying Israel on "eagles' wings" in Exodus 19:4, Isaiah 40:31 compares those who wait on the Lord to flying eagles, and Psalm 103 mentions renewing one's youth "as the eagle". In explaining this rejuvenation, Augustine of Hippo says in his commentary on the Psalms that eagles' beaks overgrow as they age and that they break them against rocks to restore them.[38] The translation, however, is uncertain: the word in the Hebrew, נשר, can also be translated vulture,[39] and is listed alongside specific kinds of vulture in Leviticus' discussion of unclean animals.

The eagle is also often used in Christian iconography to represent the Gospel of John,[40] and eagle-shaped lecterns are common in Anglican and some Roman Catholic churches.[41] The eagle was believed to be able to look directly into the sun in the same way that the Gospel of John looks directly at Jesus' divinity, and the great distances the eagle flies represent the spread of the gospel to the ends of the earth.

The United States eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual reasons.[42] In Canada, the poaching of eagle feathers for the booming U.S. market has sometimes resulted in the arrests of First Nations person for the crime.[43]

The Moche people of ancient Peru worshiped the eagle and often depicted eagles in their art.[44] The golden eagle was sacred to the Aztec god Huitzilopochtli while the harpy eagle was sacred to Quetzalcoatl.[45]

Heraldry

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Main article: Eagle (heraldry)
 
Coat of arms of Austria.
 
Coat of arms of Kotka, Finland
 
Coat of arms of the United States

Eagles are an exceptionally common symbol in heraldry, being considered the "King of Birds" in contrast to the lion, the "King of Beasts". Whereas the lion (e.g. England) usually represents authority, the eagle is the symbol of power. They are particularly popular in Germanic countries such as Austria, due to their association with the Holy Roman Empire. The eagle of the Holy Roman Empire was two-headed, supposedly representing the two divisions, East and West, of the old Roman Empire. This motif, derived from the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire was also adopted by the Russian Empire and is still featured in the Flag of Albania. The Roman eagle was preceded by the eagle of Ptolemaic Egypt and the Achaemenid Empire. In the coat of arms of Kotka, Finland, the eagle is depicted carrying an anchor and the caduceus on its feet.

Heraldic eagles are most often found displayed, i.e. with their wings and legs extended. They can also occur close, i.e. with their wings folded, or rising, i.e. about to take flight. The heads, wings, and legs of eagles can also be found independently.

Eagles symbolize strength, courage, and independence and are commonly found in the heraldry of many nations across the world. Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Dagestan, Egypt, Germany, Ghana, Iraq, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Montenegro, Nigeria, Philippines, Poland, Palestine, Panama, Russia, Romania, Serbia, South Sudan, Somaliland, the United States of America, Yemen, Zambia, and Zimbabwe are the nations whose coats of arms feature an eagle. The eagle's continuing significance and worldwide appeal as a forceful symbol in national identity and imagery is demonstrated by its widespread usage.[46]

Notes

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  1. ^ "There are four major groups of eagles: fish eagles, booted eagles, snake eagles and giant forest eagles."[24]

References

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  1. ^ del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Sargatal, J. (editors). (1994). Handbook of the Birds of the World Volume 2: New World Vultures to Guineafowl. Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-15-6
  2. ^ "eagle". OED. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
  3. ^ "rne". OED. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
  4. ^ "Svensk etymologisk ordbok - örn". svetym.se. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
  5. ^ Mitkus, Mindaugas; Potier, Simon; Martin, Graham R.; Duriez, Olivier; Kelber, Almut (26 April 2018), "Raptor Vision", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190264086.013.232, ISBN 978-0-19-026408-6, retrieved 12 June 2023
  6. ^ Martin, Graham R. (January 1986). "Vision: Shortcomings of an eagle's eye". Nature. 319 (6052): 357. Bibcode:1986Natur.319..357M. doi:10.1038/319357a0. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 3945316. S2CID 4233018.
  7. ^ Reymond, L. (1985). "Spatial visual acuity of the eagle Aquila audax: a behavioural, optical and anatomical investigation". Vision Research. 25 (10): 1477–1491. doi:10.1016/0042-6989(85)90226-3. ISSN 0042-6989. PMID 4090282. S2CID 20680520.
  8. ^ Mitkus, Mindaugas; Potier, Simon; Martin, Graham R.; Duriez, Olivier; Kelber, Almut (26 April 2018), "Raptor Vision", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Neuroscience, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190264086.013.232, ISBN 978-0-19-026408-6, retrieved 12 June 2023
  9. ^ Leclerc, Georges (2010). The Natural History of Birds: From the French of the Count de Buffon; Illustrated with Engravings, and a Preface, Notes, and Additions, by the Translator. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60–. ISBN 978-1-108-02298-9. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016.
  10. ^ Grambo, Rebecca L. (2003). Eagles. Voyageur Press. ISBN 978-0-89658-363-4. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016.
  11. ^ Grambo, Rebecca L (2003). Eagles. Voyageur Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-89658-363-4.
  12. ^ Stinson, Christopher H (1979). "On the Selective Advantage of Fratricide in Raptors". Evolution. 33 (4): 1219–1225. doi:10.2307/2407480. JSTOR 2407480. PMID 28563923.
  13. ^ a b c d e Ferguson-Lees, J.; Christie, D. (2001). Raptors of the World. London: Christopher Helm. ISBN 0-7136-8026-1.
  14. ^ "Amazing Bird Records". Trails.com. Archived from the original on 20 June 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
  15. ^ "Deer dropped by eagle knocks out power in Montana". Reuters. 18 June 2011. Retrieved 11 July 2023.
  16. ^ Watson, Jeff (2011). The Golden Eagle (Second ed.). Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-30017-019-1.
  17. ^ Sutton, C.; Dunne, P.; Sibley, D. (1989). Hawks in Flight: The Flight Identification of North American Migrant Raptors. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-3955-1022-8.
  18. ^ Ferguson-Lees, et al.
  19. ^ a b del Hoyo, J; Elliot, A; Sargatal, J (1996). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 3. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-20-2.
  20. ^ Gamauf, A.; Preleuthner, M. & Winkler, H. (1998). "Philippine Birds of Prey: Interrelations among habitat, morphology and behavior" (PDF). The Auk. 115 (3): 713–726. doi:10.2307/4089419. JSTOR 4089419. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 August 2014.
  21. ^ Morgan, A.M. "The spread and weight of the Wedge-tailed Eagle" (PDF). South Australian Ornithologist. 11: 156–157. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 April 2013.
  22. ^ Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Guinness Superlatives. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
  23. ^ "European Raptors: Golden Eagle". www.europeanraptors.org (in German). Archived from the original on 7 May 2017. Retrieved 11 September 2017.
  24. ^ a b Stalcup, Carolyn. "All About Eagles". The American Eagle Foundation. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 25 May 2014.
  25. ^ a b c d e f Rutledge, Hope. "Eagles of the World". American Bald Eagle Information. Archived from the original on 28 May 2014. Retrieved 11 June 2014. from Grambo, Rebecca L. (1999). Eagles. Voyageur Press, Inc. ISBN 9780896583634.
  26. ^ a b Lerner, H. R. L.; Mindell, D. P. (2005). "Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 37 (2): 327–346. Bibcode:2005MolPE..37..327L. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.04.010. PMID 15925523.
  27. ^ a b c d Lerner, Heather R. L.; Mindell, David P. (9 May 2006). "Accipitridae". The Tree of Life Web Project. Archived from the original on 23 December 2014.
  28. ^ "Sea Eagles, Fish Eagles and Fishing Eagles". www.oiseaux-birds.com. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
  29. ^ Moshin, Miron; Sayam, Chowdhury (9 May 2019). "Breeding Density and Habitat Selection of the Grey-Headed Fish-Eagle in Noakhali District, Bangladesh". Journal of Raptor Research. 53 (2): 134–141. doi:10.3356/JRR-18-33.
  30. ^ Morandini, Virginia; Baumbusch, Ryan; Balbontin, Javier; Ferrer, Miguel (25 May 2020). "Age of the breeders, but not territory quality, explains hatching sex ratio in booted eagles". Journal of Avian Biology. 51 (8). doi:10.1111/jav.02511.
  31. ^ a b Bouglouan, Nicole. "The booted eagles throughout the world: introduction". Oiseaux-birds. Archived from the original on 17 May 2014. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
  32. ^ Onofre, Nuno; Sampaio, Luís (2020). "Feeding Ecology of Short-Toed Snake-Eagle (Circaetus gallicus [Gmelin, 1788]) in the Montados of Iberian Peninsula" (PDF). Silva Lusitana. 28 (2): 155–179. doi:10.1051/silu/20202802139.
  33. ^ "TrekNature | Whitehead eagle Photo". www.treknature.com. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
  34. ^ Reaney, P.H. The Origin of English Place Names (1964 ed.). Routledge and Kegan Paul. p. 166.
  35. ^ Horowitz, Wayne (1998). Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. pp. 43–59. ISBN 0-931464-99-4. Archived from the original on 6 December 2017.
  36. ^ Badke, David. The Medieval Bestiary Archived 22 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  37. ^ Hutchinson, John (1749). Philosophical and Theological Works of the Late Truly Learned John Hutchinson. London, UK: James Hedges. p. 402. Archived from the original on 25 April 2016.
  38. ^ Psalm 103 Archived 8 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine in Augustine's commentary.
  39. ^ "Lexicon: Strong's H5404 - nešer". Blue Letter Bible. 11 June 2023.
  40. ^ Fonck, L. (1910). St. John the Evangelist. In The Catholic Encyclopedia (New York: Robert Appleton Company). Retrieved 14 August 2017 from New Advent.
  41. ^ Delderfield, Eric R. (1966). A Guide to Church Furniture. Newton Abbot: David & Charles.
  42. ^ Office of Law Enforcement. "National Eagle Repository". Mountain-Prairie Region. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Archived from the original on 10 October 2007. Retrieved 20 November 2007.
  43. ^ Sin, Lena (30 April 2006). "Charges laid in eagle-poaching case". The Province. CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc. Archived from the original on 31 May 2009. Retrieved 20 November 2007.
  44. ^ Larco Herrera, Rafael, and Berrin, Kathleen (1997) The Spirit of Ancient Peru Thames and Hudson, New York, ISBN 0500018022
  45. ^ de Borhegyi, Carl (30 October 2012). "Evidence of Mushroom Worship in Mesoamerica". The Yucatan Times. Archived from the original on 12 September 2014. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
  46. ^ Noor, Naeem (14 April 2024). "Coat of Arms of the World". symbolhunt.com. Retrieved 26 April 2024.
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