Indo-Iranians

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The Indo-Iranian peoples,^[10][11][12] also known as Ā́rya or Aryans from their self-designation, were a group of Indo-European speaking peoples who brought the Indo-Iranian languages to major parts of Eurasia in waves from the first part of the 2nd millennium BC onwards. They eventually branched out into the Iranian peoples and Indo-Aryan peoples.

The term Aryan has long been used to denote the Indo-Iranians, because Ā́rya was the self-designation of the ancient speakers of the Indo-Iranian languages, specifically the Iranian and the Indo-Aryan peoples, collectively known as the Indo-Iranians.^[13][14] Despite this, some scholars use the term Indo-Iranian to refer to this group, though the term "Aryan" remains widely used by most scholars, such as Josef Wiesehofer,^[15] Will Durant,^[16] and Jaakko Häkkinen.^[17][18] Population geneticist Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, in his 1994 book The History and Geography of Human Genes, also uses the term Aryan to describe the Indo-Iranians.^[19]

The Proto-Indo-Iranians are commonly identified with the descendants of the Indo-Europeans known as the Sintashta culture^[20] and the subsequent Andronovo culture within the broader Andronovo horizon, and their homeland with an area of the Eurasian steppe that borders the Ural River on the west, the Tian Shan on the east (where the Indo-Iranians took over the area occupied by the earlier Afanasevo culture), and Transoxiana and the Hindu Kush on the south.^[21]

Based on its use by Indo-Aryans in Mitanni and Vedic India, its prior absence in the Near East and Harappan India, and its 19th–20th century BC attestation at the Andronovo site of Sintashta, Kuzmina (1994) argues that the chariot corroborates the identification of Andronovo as Indo-Iranian.^{[note 2]} Anthony & Vinogradov (1995) dated a chariot burial at Krivoye Lake to about 2000 BC, and a Bactria-Margiana burial that also contains a foal has recently been found, indicating further links with the steppes.^[25]

Historical linguists broadly estimate that a continuum of Indo-Iranian languages probably began to diverge by 2000 BC,^{[26]: 38–39} preceding both the Vedic and Iranian cultures which emerged later. The earliest recorded forms of these languages, Vedic Sanskrit and Gathic Avestan, are remarkably similar, descended from the common Proto-Indo-Iranian language. The origin and earliest relationship between the Nuristani languages and that of the Iranian and Indo-Aryan groups is not completely clear.

Two-wave models of Indo-Iranian expansion have been proposed by Burrow (1973)^[28] and Parpola (1999). The Indo-Iranians and their expansion are strongly associated with the Proto-Indo-European invention of the chariot. It is assumed that this expansion spread from the Proto-Indo-European homeland north of the Caspian Sea south to the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Iranian plateau, and the Indian subcontinent.

The Mitanni, a people known in eastern Anatolia from about 1500 BC, were of possibly of mixed origins: An indigenous non Indo-European Hurrian-speaking majority was supposedly dominated by a non-Anatolian, Indo-Aryan elite.^[29]: 257 There is linguistic evidence for such a superstrate, in the form of:

• a horse training manual written by a Mitanni man named Kikkuli, which was translated into the Hittite language^[30]
• the names of Mitanni rulers and;
• the names of gods invoked by these rulers in treaties.

In particular, Kikkuli's text includes words such as aika "one" (i.e. a cognate of the Indo-Aryan eka), tera "three" (tri), panza "five" (pancha), satta "seven", (sapta), na "nine" (nava), and vartana "turn around", in the context of a horse race (Indo-Aryan vartana). In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the Ashvin deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya are invoked. These loanwords tend to connect the Mitanni superstrate to Indo-Aryan rather than Iranian languages – i.e. the early Iranian word for "one" was aiva.^{[citation needed]}

The standard model for the entry of the Indo-European languages into the Indian subcontinent is that this first wave went over the Hindu Kush, either into the headwaters of the Indus and later the Ganges. The earliest stratum of Vedic Sanskrit, preserved only in the Rigveda, is assigned to roughly 1500 BC.^{[29]: 258 [31]} From the Indus, the Indo-Aryan languages spread from c. 1500 BC – c. 500 BC, over the northern and central parts of the subcontinent, sparing the extreme south. The Indo-Aryans in these areas established several powerful kingdoms and principalities in the region, from south eastern Afghanistan to the doorstep of Bengal. The most powerful of these kingdoms were the post-Rigvedic Kuru (in Kurukshetra and the Delhi area) and their allies the Pañcālas further east, as well as Gandhara and later on, about the time of the Buddha, the kingdom of Kosala and the quickly expanding realm of Magadha. The latter lasted until the 4th century BC, when it was conquered by Chandragupta Maurya and formed the center of the Maurya Empire.

In eastern Afghanistan and some western regions of Pakistan, Indo-Aryan languages were eventually replaced by Eastern Iranian languages. Most Indo-Aryan languages, however, were and still are prominent in the rest of the Indian subcontinent. Today, Indo-Aryan languages are spoken in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Fiji, Suriname and the Maldives.

The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave.^{[26]: 42–43}

The first Iranians to reach the Black Sea 'may' have been the Cimmerians in the 8th century BC, although their linguistic affiliation to Iranians is uncertain. They were followed by the Scythians, who are considered a western branch of the Central Asian Sakas. Sarmatian tribes, of whom the best known are the Roxolani (Rhoxolani), Iazyges (Jazyges) and the Alani (Alans), followed the Scythians westwards into Europe in the late centuries BC and the 1st and 2nd centuries AD (The Age of Migrations). The populous Sarmatian tribe of the Massagetae, dwelling near the Caspian Sea, were known to the early rulers of Persia in the Achaemenid Period. At their greatest reported extent, around 1st century AD, the Sarmatian tribes ranged from the Vistula River to the mouth of the Danube and eastward to the Volga, bordering the shores of the Black and Caspian seas as well as the Caucasus to the south.^{[note 3]} In the east, the Saka occupied several areas in Xinjiang, from Khotan to Tumshuq.

The Medians, Persians and Parthians begin to appear on the Iranian plateau from c. 800 BC, and the Achaemenids replaced the language isolate speaking Elamites rule over the region from 559 BC, although the Iranic peoples were largely subject to the Semitic speaking Assyrian Empire until the 6th century BC. Around the first millennium AD, Iranian groups began to settle on the eastern edge of the Iranian plateau, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern and western Indian subcontinent, displacing the earlier Indo-Aryans from the area.

In Eastern Europe, the Iranians were eventually decisively assimilated (e.g. Slavicisation) and absorbed by the Proto-Slavic population of the region,^{[32][33][34][35]} while in Central Asia, the Turkic languages marginalized the Iranian languages as a result of the Turkic expansion of the early centuries AD. Extant major Iranian languages are Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi besides numerous smaller ones. Ossetian, primarily spoken in North Ossetia and South Ossetia, is a direct descendant of Alanic, and by that the only surviving Sarmatian language of the once wide-ranging East Iranian dialect continuum that stretched from Eastern Europe to the eastern parts of Central Asia.

Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian expansion include:

• Europe
  • Poltavka culture (2500–2100 BC)
  • Abashevo culture (2300–1850 BC)
  • Srubna culture (1850–1450 BC)
• Central Asia
  • Sintashta-Petrovka-Arkaim (2050–1750 BC)
  • Andronovo horizon (2000–1450 BC)
    • Alakul (2100–1400 BC)
    • Fedorovo (1400–1200 BC)
    • Alekseyevka (1200–1000 BC)
  • Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (2200–1700 BC)
  • Yaz culture (1500–1100 BC)
• Indian subcontinent
  • Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (2000–1500 BC)
  • Cemetery H culture (1900–1300 BC)
  • Swat culture (1400–800 BC)
  • Painted Gray Ware culture (1200–600 BC)
• Iranian Plateau
  • Early West Iranian Grey Ware (1500–1000 BC)
  • Late West Iranian Buff Ware (900–700 BC)

Parpola (1999) suggests the following identifications:

Date range	Archaeological culture	Identification suggested by Parpola
2800–2000 BC	late Catacomb and Poltavka cultures	late PIE to Proto–Indo-Iranian
2000–1800 BC	Srubna and Abashevo cultures	Proto-Iranian
2000–1800 BC	Petrovka-Sintashta	Proto–Indo-Aryan
1900–1700 BC	BMAC	"Proto-Dasa" Indo-Aryans establishing themselves in the existing BMAC settlements, defeated by "Proto-Rigvedic" Indo-Aryans around 1700
1900–1400 BC	Cemetery H	Indian Dasa
1800–1000 BC	Alakul-Fedorovo	Indo-Aryan, including "Proto–Sauma-Aryan" practicing the Soma cult
1700–1400 BC	early Swat culture	Proto-Rigvedic
1700–1500 BC	late BMAC	"Proto–Sauma-Dasa", assimilation of Proto-Dasa and Proto–Sauma-Aryan
1500–1000 BC	Early West Iranian Grey Ware	Mitanni-Aryan (offshoot of "Proto–Sauma-Dasa")
1400–800 BC	late Swat culture and Punjab, Painted Grey Ware	late Rigvedic
1400–1100 BC	Yaz II-III, Seistan	Proto-Avestan
1100–1000 BC	Gurgan Buff Ware, Late West Iranian Buff Ware	Proto-Persian, Proto-Median
1000–400 BC	Iron Age cultures of Xinjiang	Proto-Saka

The Indo-European language spoken by the Proto-Indo-Iranians in the late 3rd millennium BC was a Satem language still not removed very far from the Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn only removed by a few centuries from Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda. The main phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto–Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o, *a into a single vowel, Proto–Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law and Bartholomae's law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian, as well as the loss of the labiovelars (kw, etc.) to k, and the Eastern Indo-European (Satem) shift from palatized k' to ć, as in Proto–Indo-European *k'ṃto- > Indo-Iran. *ćata- > Sanskrit śata-, Old Iran. sata "100".

Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilant *z, among those to Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.

The regions where Indo-Iranian languages are spoken extend from Europe (Romani) and the Caucasus (Ossetian, Tat and Talysh), down to Mesopotamia (Kurdish languages, Zaza–Gorani and Kurmanji Dialect continuum^[36]) and Iran (Persian), eastward to Xinjiang (Sarikoli) and Assam (Assamese), and south to Sri Lanka (Sinhala) and the Maldives (Maldivian), with branches stretching as far out as Oceania and the Caribbean for Fiji Hindi and Caribbean Hindustani respectively. Furthermore, there are large diaspora communities of Indo-Iranian speakers in northwestern Europe (the United Kingdom), North America (United States, Canada), Australia, South Africa, and the Persian Gulf Region (United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia).

Despite the introduction of later Vedic and Zoroastrian scriptures, Indo-Iranians shared a common inheritance of concepts including the universal force *Hṛta- (Sanskrit rta, Avestan asha), the sacred plant and drink *sawHma- (Sanskrit Soma, Avestan Haoma) and gods of social order such as *mitra- (Sanskrit Mitra, Avestan and Old Persian Mithra, Miθra) and *bʰaga- (Sanskrit Bhaga, Avestan and Old Persian Baga). Proto-Indo-Iranian religion is an archaic offshoot of Indo-European religion. From the various and dispersed Indo-Iranian cultures, a set of common ideas may be reconstructed from which a common, unattested proto-Indo-Iranian source may be deduced.^[37]

The pre-Islamic religion of the Nuristani people and extant religion of the Kalash people is significantly influenced by the original religion of the Indo-Iranians, infused with accretions developed locally.^{[38][39][40][41][42]} Michael Witzel theorises that these religions might share some elements with Shinto, one of the national religions of Japan, which according to him may contain some Indo-Iranian influence owing to contact presumably in the steppes of Central Asia at around 2000 BC. In Shinto, traces of these can be seen in the myth of the storm god Susanoo slaying a serpent Yamata-no-Orochi and in the myth of the dawn goddess Ame-no-Uzume.^[43][44][45]

Most Indo-Iranians today follow Abrahamic and Indian religions.

Some beliefs developed in different ways as cultures separated and evolved. For example, the word 'daeva,' which appears in the Avesta, also bears a linguistic relationship to the Sanskrit word 'deva,' referring to one of the principal classes of gods, as well as other related words throughout the Indo-European traditions. Indeed, Indra, the greatest of the devas from Vedic literature, is often listed in Zoroastrian texts as one of the greatest of the evil forces, sometimes second only to Angra Mainyu himself.^[46] In the traditional Zoroastrian confession of faith as recorded in the Avesta, the rejection of the daevas is one of the most significant qualifiers for a follower of the tradition, alongside worshipping Ahura Mazda and following the teachings of Zarathustra. Similarly, the parallels between the malevolent Vedic Asuras and benevolent Zoroastrian Ahuras are particularly obvious and striking.Varuna, the most powerful of the Asuras, does not directly correspond to Ahura Mazda but shares several traits in common with him, particularly in terms of his role as king among the lesser gods and arbiter of law and morality among mortals. Even as Ahura Mazda rules by and upholds asha, the cosmic moral order, in the Avesta, so too do Varuna and the Asuras uphold the analogous concept of rta in the Vedas.^[46]

The Rig-Vedic Sarasvati is linguistically and functionally cognate with Avestan *Haraxvaitī Ārəduuī Sūrā Anāhitā.^{[citation needed]} Both are described as world rivers. Vedic Saraswati is described as "Best of Mothers, Best of Rivers, Best of Goddesses".^[47] Similarly, in early portions of the Avesta, Iranian *Harahvati is the world-river that flows down from the mythical central Mount Hara. She is blocked by an obstacle (Avestan for obstacle: vərəθra) placed there by Angra Mainyu.^[37]

The following is a list of cognate terms that may be gleaned from comparative linguistic analysis of the Rigveda and Avesta. Both collections are from the period after the proposed date of separation (c. 2nd millennium BC) of the Proto-Indo-Iranians into their respective Indic and Iranian branches.^[37][48][49]

Vedic Sanskrit	Avestan	Common meaning
āp	āp	"water," āpas "the Waters"[49]
Apam Napat, Apām Napāt	Apām Napāt	the "water's offspring"[49]
aryaman	airyaman	"Arya-hood" (lit:** "member of Arya community")[49]
Asura Mahata/Medha (असुर महत/मेधा)	Ahura Mazda	"The Supreme Lord, Lord of Wisdom"[50][51]
rta	asha/arta	"active truth", extending to "order" and "righteousness"[49][48]
atharvan	āθrauuan, aθaurun Atar	"priest"[48]
ahi	azhi, (aži)	"dragon, snake", "serpent"[49]
daiva, deva	daeva, (daēuua)	a class of divinities
manu	manu	"man"[49]
mitra	mithra, miθra	"oath, covenant"[49][48]
asura	ahura	another class of spirits[49][48]
sarvatat	Hauruuatāt	"intactness", "perfection"[52][53]
Sarasvatī (Ārdrāvī śūrā anāhitā, आर्द्रावी शूरा अनाहिता)	Haraxvati/Haraxvaitī (Ārəduuī Sūrā Anāhitā)	a controversial (generally considered mythological) river, a river goddess[54][55]
sauma, soma	haoma	a plant, deified[49][48]
svar	hvar, xvar	the Sun, also cognate to Greek helios, Latin sol, Engl. Sun[52]
Tapati	tapaiti	Possible fire/solar goddess; see Tabiti (a possibly Hellenised Scythian theonym). Cognate with Latin tepeo and several other terms.[52]
Vrtra-/Vr̥tragʰná/Vritraban	verethra, vərəθra (cf. Verethragna, Vərəθraγna)	"obstacle"[49][48]
Yama	Yima	son of the solar deity Vivasvant/Vīuuahuuant[49]
yajña	yasna, object: yazata	"worship, sacrifice, oblation"[49][48]
Gandharva	Gandarewa	"heavenly beings"[49]
Nasatya	Nanghaithya	"twin Vedic gods associated with the dawn, medicine, and sciences"[49]
Amarattya	Ameretat	"immortality"[49]
Póṣa	Apaosha	"demon of drought"[49]
Ashman	Asman	"sky, highest heaven"[52]
Angira Manyu	Angra Mainyu	"destructive/evil spirit, spirit, temper, ardour, passion, anger, teacher of divine knowledge"[49]
Manyu	Maniyu	"anger, wrath"[49]
Sarva	Sarva	"Rudra, Vedic god of wind, Shiva"[52]
Madhu	Madu	"honey"[49]
Bhuta	Buiti	"ghost"[49]
Mantra	Manthra	"sacred spell"[49]
Aramati	Armaiti	"piety"
Amrita	Amesha	"nectar of immortality"[49]
Amrita Spanda (अमृत स्पन्द)	Amesha Spenta	"holy nectar of immortality"
Sumati	Humata	"good thought"[52][49]
Sukta	Hukhta	"good word"[49]
Narasamsa	Nairyosangha	"praised man"[49]
Vayu	Vaiiu	"wind"[49]
Vajra	Vazra	"bolt"[49]
Ushas	Ushah	"dawn"[49]
Ahuti	azuiti	"offering"[49]
púraṁdhi	purendi[49]
bhaga	baga	"lord, patron, wealth, prosperity, sharer/distributor of good fortune"[49]
Usij	Usij	"priest"[49]
trita	thrita	"the third"[49]
Mas	Mah	"moon, month"[49]
Vivasvant	Vivanhvant	"lighting up, matutinal"[49]
Druh	Druj	"Evil spirit"[49]
Ahi Dasaka	Azhi Dahaka	"biting serpent"[56]

R1a1a (R-M17 or R-M198) is the sub-clade most commonly associated with Indo-European populations. Most discussions purportedly of R1a origins are actually about the origins of the dominant R1a1a (R-M17 or R-M198) sub-clade. R1a1a is found in two major variations: Z93 and Z282.^[57] R-Z93 appears to encompass most of the R1a1a found in Asia, being related to Indo-Iranians.^[58] On the other hand, R-Z282 is the main European branch of R1a1a predominantly related to Balts and Slavs in Eastern Europe.^[58] Data so far collected indicates high frequency of R-Z93 in the northern Indian Subcontinent, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan: Bengali Brahmins carry up to 72% R1a1a,^[59] Mohana tribe up to 71%,^[60] Nepal Hindus up to 69.20%,^[61] and Tajiks up to 68%.^[62] In the western part of Iran, Iranians show low R1a1a levels, while males of eastern parts of Iran carry up to 35% R1a1a.^[62] The historical and prehistoric possible reasons for this are the subject of on-going discussion and attention amongst population geneticists and genetic genealogists, and are considered to be of potential interest to linguists and archaeologists also.

Out of 10 human male remains assigned to the Andronovo horizon from the Krasnoyarsk region, 9 possessed the R1a Y-chromosome haplogroup and one C-M130 haplogroup (xC3). mtDNA haplogroups of nine individuals assigned to the same Andronovo horizon and region were as follows: U4 (2 individuals), U2e, U5a1, Z, T1, T4, H, and K2b.

A 2004 study also established that during the Bronze Age/Iron Age period, the majority of the population of Kazakhstan (part of the Andronovo culture during the Bronze Age), was of west Eurasian maternal lineages (with mtDNA haplogroups such as U, H, HV, T, I and W), and that prior to the 13th–7th century BC, all Kazakh samples belonged to European lineages.^[63]

A 2022 study found that modern individuals from Southern Central Asia, especially Tajiks and Yaghnobis, display strong genetic continuity towards Iron Age Indo-Iranians, and were only marginally affected by outside geneflow, while modern Turkic peoples derive significant amounts of ancestry from a 'Baikal hunter-gatherer' source (mean average ~50%), with the remainder being ancestry maximized in Tajik people. Historical Indo-Iranians showed high genetic affinity towards European hunter-gatherers and Iranian Neolithic farmers.^[64]

• Proto-Indo-Iranian language
• Proto-Dravidian language
• Satemization
• Ariana
• Āryāvarta
• Dravidian peoples
• Aryanization
• Indo-Aryan migrations

• Guarino-Vignon, Perle; Marchi, Nina; Bendezu-Sarmiento, Julio; Heyer, Evelyne; Bon, Céline (2022). "Genetic continuity of Indo-Iranian speakers since the Iron Age in southern Central Asia". Scientific Reports. 12: 733. Bibcode:2022NatSR..12..733G. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-04144-4.
• Vasil'ev, I. B., P. F. Kuznetsov, and A. P. Semenova. "Potapovo Burial Ground of the Indo-Iranic Tribes on the Volga" (1994).

• The Origin of the Pre-Imperial Iranian People by Oric Basirov (2001)
• The Origin of the Indo-Iranians Elena E. Kuz'mina. Edited by J.P. Mallory (2007)