[go: up one dir, main page]
Jump to content

Plant-based diet

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Plant-based diets)
This article is about designed diets which consist mostly or entirely of plant-based foods. For the natural behavior of feeding from plants (phytophagy), see Herbivore. "WFPB" redirects here. For the radio station, see WUMB-FM § Repeater stations.

Food from plants

A plant-based diet is a diet consisting mostly or entirely of plant-based foods.[1][2] Plant-based diets encompass a wide range of dietary patterns that contain low amounts of animal products and high amounts of fiber-rich[3] plant products such as vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts and seeds.[4][5][6] They do not need to be vegan or vegetarian,[7][8] but are defined in terms of low frequency of animal food consumption.[4][7]

Terminology

Origin of the term "plant-based diet" is attributed to Cornell University nutritional biochemist T. Colin Campbell who presented his diet research at the US National Institutes of Health in 1980.[9] Campbell's research about a plant-based diet extended from The China Project, a decade-long study of dietary practices in rural China, giving evidence that a diet low in animal protein and fat, and high in plant foods, could reduce the incidence of several diseases.[10] In 2005, Campbell and his son published The China Study, a best-selling book emphasizing the potential health benefits of a plant-based diet.[9][11] Campbell also used the plant-based concept to educate consumers about how eating meat had significant environmental consequences.[9]

Some authors draw a distinction between diets that are "plant-based" or "plant-only".[12] A plant-based diet may be defined as consuming plant-sourced foods that are minimally processed.[9][11]

A review analyzing the use of the term plant-based diet in medical literature found that 50% of clinical trials use the term interchangeably with vegan, meaning that the interventional diet did not include foods of animal origin. 30% of studies included dairy products and 20% meat.[13]

In 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) stated that "plant-based diets constitute a diverse range of dietary patterns that emphasize foods derived from plant sources coupled with lower consumption or exclusion of animal products. Vegetarian diets form a subset of plant-based diets, which may exclude the consumption of some or all forms of animal foods."[14] The WHO lists flexitarian, lacto-vegetarian, lacto-ovo vegetarian, ovo-vegetarian, pescatarian and vegan diets as plant-based.[14]

A 2023 review paper defined plant-based as "a dietary pattern in which foods of animal origin are totally or mostly excluded".[1]

In 2024, the International Organization for Standardization drafted ISO 8700 on "Plant-based foods and food ingredients - Definitions and technical criteria for labelling and claims".[15]

Motivation and prevalence

As of the early 21st century, some 4 billion people are estimated to live primarily on a plant-based diet, some by choice and some because of limits caused by shortages of crops, fresh water, and energy resources.[16] Main motivations to follow a plant-based diet appear to be health aspirations, taste, animal welfare, environmental concern, and weight loss.[17] In the U.S.A., people take individual action on climate change through their diet. Twenty-six per cent of those who eat a plant-based diet because they are "alarmed" about global warming — defined by the Yale Program on Climate Change Communication as those who are "convinced global warming is happening, human-caused, an urgent threat" — and twenty-seven per cent eat a plant-based diet because they are "concerned" — they believe global warming is a real and serious threat and that humans are causing it, but they think climate impacts remain far enough in the future that they are a lower priority issue.[18]

Health guidelines and research

Countries position on vegetarian diets within their food-based dietary guidelines:[19]
  Supporters
  Informers
  Less informed
  Critics
  No guidelines
  Guideline not analysed

Plant-based diets are of interest in preventing and managing chronic diseases.[20][21] The British Dietetic Association stated that a plant-based diet "can support healthy living at every age and life stage", but as with any diet it should be properly planned.[2] The Government of Canada and Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada issued 2024 guidelines for planning meals with plant-based protein sources, including menu ideas for substituting meats with plant foods.[22][23]

Diet quality

Not all plant-based foods are equally healthy. Rather, plant-based diets including whole grains as the main form of carbohydrate, unsaturated fats as the main form of dietary fat, an abundance of fruit and vegetables, and adequate n-3 fatty acids can be considered healthy.[24]

With processed plant-based foods, such as vegan burger patties or chicken-like nuggets, becoming more available, there is also concern that plant-based diets incorporating these foods may become less healthy.[25]

In practice lacto-ovo vegetarians or vegans seem to have a higher overall diet quality compared with nonvegetarians. The reason for this is the closer adherence to health organisation recommendations on consumption of fruits, whole grains, seafood and plant protein and sodium. The higher diet quality in vegetarians and vegans may explain some of the positive health outcomes compared with nonvegetarians.[26]

Vitamin B12

Plant-based foods are not a reliable source of vitamin B12 by default. A lack of B12 is associated with a range of conditions and it is essential for human health.[27] Those eating a fully plant-based diet should ensure adequate B12 intake via supplementation or consumption of fortified foods,[28] such as fortified plant milks or yogurts, nutritional yeast, or fortified cereals.[29]

Even those eating a plant-based diet including a small amount of animal products are at an increased risk of a lower than recommended B12 intake[30] without supplementation or regular consumption of fortified foods.

Weight

Observational studies show that vegetarian diets are lower in energy intake than non-vegetarian diets[31] and that, on average, vegetarians have a lower body mass index than non-vegetarians.[32]

Two reviews of preliminary research found that vegetarian diets practiced over 18 weeks or longer reduced body weight in the range of 2–3 kilograms (4.4–6.6 lb),[33][34] with vegan diets used for 12 weeks or longer reducing body weight by 4 kg.[35]

In obese people, a 2022 review found that plant-based diets improved weight control, LDL and total cholesterol, blood pressure, insulin resistance, and fasting glucose.[36]

Diabetes

Some reviews indicate that plant-based diets including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, and nuts are associated with a lower risk of diabetes.[37][38][39]

Therefore, vegetarian and vegan diets are under clinical research to identify potential effects on type 2 diabetes, with preliminary results showing improvements in body weight and biomarkers of metabolic syndrome.[40][41]

When the focus was whole foods, an improvement of diabetes biomarkers occurred, including reduced obesity.[37][42][43] In diabetic people, plant-based diets were also associated with improved emotional and physical well-being, relief of depression, higher quality of life, and better general health.[42]

The American College of Lifestyle Medicine stated that diet can achieve remission in many adults with type 2 diabetes when used as a primary intervention of whole, plant-based foods with minimal consumption of meat and other animal products. There remains a need for more randomized controlled trials "to assess sustainable plant-based dietary interventions with whole or minimally processed foods, as a primary means of treating diabetes with the goal of remission."[44]

Cancer

Plant-based diets are associated with a decreased risk of colorectal and prostate cancer.[45][46][47] Vegetarian diets are associated with a lower incidence from total cancer (-8%). A vegan diet seems to reduce risk of incidence from total cancer by -15%. However, there was no improvement in cancer mortality.[48]

Microbiome

Preliminary studies indicate that a plant-based diet may improve the gut microbiome.[49][50]

Cardiovascular diseases

A 2022 review of prospective cohort studies showed that vegetarian diets are associated with a 15% reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases and 21% reduced risk in coronary artery disease, but with no effect on the risk of stroke; for vegan diets, only a reduced risk in coronary artery disease was found.[51]

Other reviews found that plant-based diets, including vegan and vegetarian diets, may lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases,[4][7] including blood pressure[52][53] and blood lipid levels.[54][55] Randomized clinical trials also showed that the reduction in blood pressure (about 4 mmHg) associated with a vegan diet without caloric restrictions is comparable to reductions observed with dietary practices recommended by medical societies and use of portion-controlled diets.[56]

Preliminary evidence indicates that people on a long-term vegan diet show improvements in cardiovascular and metabolic risk factors.[57]

Bone health

The effect of plant-based diets on bone health is inconclusive. Preliminary research indicates that consuming a plant-based diet may be associated with lower bone density, a risk factor for fractures.[58][59][60]

Inflammation

Plant-based diets are under study for their potential to reduce inflammation.[61] C-reactive protein – a biomarker for inflammation – may be reduced by consuming a plant-based diet,[62] particularly in obese people.[63]

Mortality

A 2020 review stated that dietary patterns based on consuming vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, whole grains, unsaturated vegetable oils, fish, lean meat or poultry, and are low in processed meat, high-fat dairy and refined carbohydrates or sweets, are associated with a decreased risk of all-cause mortality.[64]

Physical performance

In a meta-analysis published online in 2023, plant-based diets were shown to have a moderate positive effect on aerobic performance and had no effect on strength performance.[65]

Sustainability

Main article: Sustainable diet

Biomass of mammals on Earth[66]

  Livestock, mostly cattle and pigs (60%)
  Humans (36%)
  Wild mammals (4%)

There is scientific consensus that plant-based diets offer lower greenhouse gas emissions, land use and biodiversity loss. In addition, dietary patterns that reduce diet-related mortality also promote environmental sustainability.[67][68][69]

As a significant percentage of crops around the world are used to feed livestock rather than humans, eating less animal products helps to limit climate change (such as through low-carbon diets) and biodiversity loss.[70] Especially beef, lamb and cheese have a very high carbon footprint.[71] While soy cultivation is a "major driver of deforestation in the Amazon basin",[72] the vast majority of soy crops are used for livestock consumption rather than human consumption.[73] Adopting plant-based diets could also reduce the number of animals raised and killed for food on factory farms.[74]

European respondents to a climate survey conducted in 2021–2022 by the European Investment Bank say that most people will switch to a plant-based diet within 20 years to help the environment

Research from 2019 on six diets found the plant-based diets more environmentally friendly than the diets higher in animal-sourced foods. Of the six mutually-exclusive diets; individuals eating vegan, vegetarian and pescetarian diets had lower dietary-carbon footprints than typical omnivorous diets, while those who ate 'paleolithic' and ketogenic diets had higher dietary-carbon emissions due to their animal sourced foods.[75]

A 2020 study found that the climate change mitigation effects of shifting worldwide food production and consumption to plant-based diets, which are mainly composed of foods that require only a small fraction of the land and CO2 emissions required for meat and dairy, could offset CO2 emissions equal to those of past 9 to 16 years of fossil fuel emissions in nations that they grouped into 4 types. The researchers also provided a map of approximate regional opportunities.[76][77]

It may be possible to increase the transition from meat eating to a plant based diet through social contagion, by which behaviour, emotions, or conditions spread spontaneously through a group or network. A Max Planck Institute study from 2020 found that when meat-eaters are accompanied by vegetarians and have a choice of eating dishes with or without meat, they're more likely to choose a vegetarian dish. This probability increases as the number of vegetarians accompanying the meat eaters increases.[78] Once enough people have been influenced, the community can reach a tipping point, in which a majority of people transition to a new habit; a 2018 study published in Nature claims that with only 25 per cent of a population, a minority perspective was able to overturn the majority.[79]

According to a 2021 Chatham House report, supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, a shift to "predominantly plant-based diets" will be needed to reduce biodiversity loss and human impact on the environment. The report said that livestock has the largest environmental impact, with some 80% of all global farmland used to rear cattle, sheep and other animals used by humans for food. Moving towards plant-based diets would free up the land to allow for the restoration of ecosystems and the flourishing of biodiversity.[66]

A 2022 study published in Nature Food found that if high-income nations switched to a plant-based diet, vast swaths of land used for animal agriculture could be allowed to return to their natural state, which in turn has the potential to pull 100 billion tons of CO2 out of the atmosphere by the end of the century. Around 35% of all habitable land around the world is used to rear animals used by humans in food production.[80][81]

A 2023 study published in Nature Food found that a vegan diet vastly decreases the impact on the environment from food production, such as reducing emissions, water pollution and land use by 75%, reducing the destruction of wildlife by 66% and the usage of water by 54%.[82] Another study published in the same year in Nature Communications found that replacing half of the beef, chicken, dairy and pork products consumed by the global population with plant-based alternatives could reduce the amount of land used by agriculture by almost a third, bring deforestation to a near-halt, restore biodiversity, and reduce GHG emissions from agriculture by 31% by 2050. However, the report also notes that a growing population and rising affluence are projected to increase demand for animal products which could have negative impacts on the environment.[83][84][85]

Politics

A reduction in meat consumption and a shift to more plant-based diets is needed to reach climate targets, addressing public health problems, and protecting animal welfare. Research has been done on how to best promote such a change in consumer behaviour.[86]

Some public health organisations advocate a plant-based diet due to its low ecological footprint. These include the Swedish Food Agency in its dietary guideline[87] and a group of Lancet researchers who propose a planetary health diet.[88] Vegan climate activist Greta Thunberg also called for more plant-based food production and consumption worldwide.[89] A 2022 report by the Stockholm Environment Institute and the Council On Energy, Environment and Water included protecting animal welfare and adopting plant based diets on a list of recommendations to help mitigate the ecological and social crises bringing the world to a "boiling point".[90]

Denmark and South Korea announced plant-based action plans in 2023.[91]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Hargreaves SM, Rosenfeld DL, Moreira AV, et al. (2023). "Plant-based and vegetarian diets: an overview and definition of these dietary patterns". European Journal of Nutrition. 62 (3): 1109–1121. doi:10.1007/s00394-023-03086-z. PMID 36681744. S2CID 256079863.
  2. ^ a b "Vegetarian, vegan and plant-based diet: Food fact sheet". British Dietetic Association. 2024.
  3. ^ "What is a plant-based diet, and is it healthy?". Columbia University Irving Medical Center. 15 April 2022.
  4. ^ a b c Satija A, Hu FB (October 2018). "Plant-based diets and cardiovascular health". Trends in Cardiovascular Medicine. 28 (7): 437–441. doi:10.1016/j.tcm.2018.02.004. PMC 6089671. PMID 29496410. Plant-based diets, defined in terms of low frequency of animal food consumption, have been increasingly recommended for their health benefits.
  5. ^ Hemler EC, Hu FB (November 2019). "Plant-Based Diets for Personal, Population, and Planetary Health". Advances in Nutrition. 10 (Suppl_4): S275–S283. doi:10.1093/advances/nmy117. PMC 6855934. PMID 31728495. The term "plant-based diets" encompasses a wide range of dietary patterns that contain lower amounts of animal products and higher amounts of plant products such as vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and seeds...
  6. ^ "Plant-based: Definition and usage examples". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 22 February 2024.
  7. ^ a b c Hemler EC, Hu FB (March 2019). "Plant-Based Diets for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention: All Plant Foods Are Not Created Equal". Current Atherosclerosis Reports. 21 (5): 18. doi:10.1007/s11883-019-0779-5. PMID 30895476. S2CID 84842104. Contrary to popular belief, plant-based diets do not have to be vegan or vegetarian.
  8. ^ McManus KD (26 September 2018). "What is a plant-based diet and why should you try it?". Harvard Health. Retrieved 11 February 2022. Plant-based or plant-forward eating patterns focus on foods primarily from plants. This includes not only fruits and vegetables, but also nuts, seeds, oils, whole grains, legumes, and beans. It doesn't mean that you are vegetarian or vegan and never eat meat or dairy.
  9. ^ a b c d Ethan Varian (28 December 2019). "It's Called 'Plant-Based,' Look It Up (updated 15 October 2021)". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
  10. ^ Jane E. Brody (8 May 1990). "Huge Study Of Diet Indicts Fat And Meat". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
  11. ^ a b Tara Parker-Pope (7 January 2011). "Nutrition Advice from The China Study". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
  12. ^ Dwyer J (2003). "Vegetarian Diets". In Caballero B, Trugo LC, Finglas PM (eds.). Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (Second ed.). Academic Press/Elsevier. pp. 5974–5979. ISBN 978-0-12-227055-0.
  13. ^ Storz MA (June 2022). "What makes a plant-based diet? a review of current concepts and proposal for a standardized plant-based dietary intervention checklist". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 76 (6): 789–800. doi:10.1038/s41430-021-01023-z. ISSN 1476-5640. PMC 9187516. PMID 34675405.
  14. ^ a b "Plant-based diets and their impact on health, sustainability and the environment: A review of the evidence". WHO European Office for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
  15. ^ "ISO/DIS 8700". ISO. 30 May 2024. Retrieved 5 June 2024.
  16. ^ Pimentel D, Pimentel M (September 2003). "Sustainability of meat-based and plant-based diets and the environment". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 78 (3 Suppl): 660S–663S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/78.3.660S. PMID 12936963. Worldwide, an estimated 2 billion people live primarily on a meat-based diet, while an estimated 4 billion live primarily on a plant-based diet. The shortages of cropland, fresh water, and energy resources require most of the 4 billion people to live on a plant-based diet
  17. ^ Miki AJ, Livingston KA, Karlsen MC, et al. (March 2020). "Using Evidence Mapping to Examine Motivations for Following Plant-Based Diets". Current Developments in Nutrition. 4 (3): nzaa013. doi:10.1093/cdn/nzaa013. ISSN 2475-2991. PMC 7042611. PMID 32110769.
  18. ^ "Global Warming's Six Americas". Yale Program on Climate Change Communication. Retrieved 30 September 2023.
  19. ^ Klapp AL, Feil N, Risius A (November 2022). "A Global Analysis of National Dietary Guidelines on Plant-Based Diets and Substitutions for Animal-Based Foods". Current Developments in Nutrition. 6 (11): nzac144. doi:10.1093/cdn/nzac144. PMC 9708321. PMID 36467286.
  20. ^ Herpich C, Müller-Werdan U, Norman K (2022). "Role of plant-based diets in promoting health and longevity". Maturitas. 165: 47–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2022.07.003. PMID 35914402.
  21. ^ Jafari S, Hezaveh E, Jalilpiran Y, et al. (May 2021). "Plant-based diets and risk of disease mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 62 (28): 7760–7772. doi:10.1080/10408398.2021.1918628. PMID 33951994. S2CID 233867757.
  22. ^ "Canada's food guide: Cooking with plant-based protein foods". Government of Canada. 2024. Retrieved 5 July 2024.
  23. ^ "What is a plant-based diet?". Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada. 2024. Retrieved 5 July 2024.
  24. ^ Williams KA, Patel H (25 July 2017). "Healthy Plant-Based Diet: What Does it Really Mean?". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 70 (4): 423–425. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2017.06.006. ISSN 1558-3597. PMID 28728685.
  25. ^ Macdiarmid JI (11 October 2021). "The food system and climate change: are plant-based diets becoming unhealthy and less environmentally sustainable?". The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 81 (2): 162–167. doi:10.1017/S0029665121003712. hdl:2164/19207. ISSN 1475-2719. PMID 35156593. S2CID 243109615.
  26. ^ Parker HW, Vadiveloo MK (1 March 2019). "Diet quality of vegetarian diets compared with nonvegetarian diets: a systematic review". Nutrition Reviews. 77 (3): 144–160. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuy067. ISSN 1753-4887. PMID 30624697.
  27. ^ Niklewicz A, Smith AD, Smith A, et al. (April 2023). "The importance of vitamin B12 for individuals choosing plant-based diets". European Journal of Nutrition. 62 (3): 1551–1559. doi:10.1007/s00394-022-03025-4. ISSN 1436-6215. PMC 10030528. PMID 36469110.
  28. ^ Melina V, Craig W, Levin S (December 2016). "Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets". Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 116 (12): 1970–1980. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025. ISSN 2212-2672. PMID 27886704.
  29. ^ "Vitamin B12". The Vegan Society. Retrieved 7 April 2024.
  30. ^ Bruns A, Nebl J, Jonas W, et al. (28 November 2023). "Nutritional status of flexitarians compared to vegans and omnivores - a cross-sectional pilot study". BMC Nutrition. 9 (1): 140. doi:10.1186/s40795-023-00799-6. ISSN 2055-0928. PMC 10685640. PMID 38017527.
  31. ^ Kennedy ET, Bowman SA, Spence JT, et al. (April 2001). "Popular diets: correlation to health, nutrition, and obesity". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 101 (4): 411–420. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(01)00108-0. ISSN 0002-8223. PMID 11320946.
  32. ^ Koutras Y, Chrysostomou S, Poulimeneas D, et al. (June 2022). "Examining the associations between a posteriori dietary patterns and obesity indexes: Systematic review of observational studies". Nutrition and Health. 28 (2): 149–162. doi:10.1177/02601060211020975. ISSN 0260-1060. PMID 34100659. S2CID 235370106.
  33. ^ Huang RY, Huang CC, Hu FB, et al. (January 2016). "Vegetarian Diets and Weight Reduction: a Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 31 (1): 109–116. doi:10.1007/s11606-015-3390-7. PMC 4699995. PMID 26138004.
  34. ^ Barnard ND, Levin SM, Yokoyama Y (June 2015). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of changes in body weight in clinical trials of vegetarian diets". Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 115 (6): 954–969. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2014.11.016. PMID 25620754.
  35. ^ Termannsen AD, Clemmensen KK, Thomsen JM, et al. (7 June 2022). "Effects of vegan diets on cardiometabolic health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Obesity Reviews. 23 (9): e13462. doi:10.1111/obr.13462. ISSN 1467-789X. PMC 9540559. PMID 35672940. S2CID 249465763.
  36. ^ Remde A, DeTurk SN, Almardini A, et al. (8 April 2022). "Plant-predominant eating patterns – how effective are they for treating obesity and related cardiometabolic health outcomes? – a systematic review". Nutrition Reviews. 80 (5): 1094–1104. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuab060. ISSN 1753-4887. PMID 34498070.
  37. ^ a b Qian F, Liu G, Hu FB, et al. (October 2019). "Association Between Plant-Based Dietary Patterns and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine. 179 (10): 1335–1344. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.2195. PMC 6646993. PMID 31329220.
  38. ^ Lee Y, Park K (June 2017). "Adherence to a Vegetarian Diet and Diabetes Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies". Nutrients. 9 (6): E603. doi:10.3390/nu9060603. PMC 5490582. PMID 28613258.
  39. ^ Kahleova H, Pelikanova T (2015). "Vegetarian Diets in the Prevention and Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes". Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 34 (5): 448–458. doi:10.1080/07315724.2014.976890. PMID 25915002. S2CID 10451737.
  40. ^ Toumpanakis A, Turnbull T, Alba-Barba I (2018). "Effectiveness of plant-based diets in promoting well-being in the management of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review". BMJ Open Diabetes Research and Care. 6 (1): e000534. doi:10.1136/bmjdrc-2018-000534. PMC 6235058. PMID 30487971.
  41. ^ Jardine MA, Kahleova H, Levin SM, et al. (December 2021). "Perspective: Plant-Based Eating Pattern for Type 2 Diabetes Prevention and Treatment: Efficacy, Mechanisms, and Practical Considerations". Advances in Nutrition. 12 (6): 2045–2055. doi:10.1093/advances/nmab063. PMC 8634508. PMID 34113961.
  42. ^ a b Toumpanakis A, Turnbull T, Alba-Barba I (2018). "Effectiveness of plant-based diets in promoting well-being in the management of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review". BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care. 6 (1): e000534. doi:10.1136/bmjdrc-2018-000534. PMC 6235058. PMID 30487971.
  43. ^ Dinu M, Abbate R, Gensini GF, et al. (November 2017). "Vegetarian, vegan diets and multiple health outcomes: A systematic review with meta-analysis of observational studies". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 57 (17): 3640–3649. doi:10.1080/10408398.2016.1138447. hdl:2158/1079985. PMID 26853923. S2CID 10073754.
  44. ^ Rosenfeld RM, Kelly JH, Agarwal M, et al. (May 2022). "Dietary Interventions to Treat Type 2 Diabetes in Adults with a Goal of Remission: An Expert Consensus Statement from the American College of Lifestyle Medicine". American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 16 (3): 342–362. doi:10.1177/15598276221087624. PMC 9189586. PMID 35706589.
  45. ^ Godos J, Bella F, Sciacca S, et al. (June 2017). "Vegetarianism and breast, colorectal and prostate cancer risk: an overview and meta-analysis of cohort studies". Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics. 30 (3): 349–359. doi:10.1111/jhn.12426. PMID 27709695. S2CID 4331025.
  46. ^ Gupta N, Taylor J, Borin J, et al. (1 May 2022). "Systematic review of the impact of a plant-based diet on prostate cancer incidence and outcomes". Journal of Urology. 207 (Supplement 5): e42. doi:10.1097/JU.0000000000002518.04. S2CID 248030075.
  47. ^ Shin J, Millstine D, Ruddy B, et al. (2019). "Effect of Plant- and Animal-Based Foods on Prostate Cancer Risk" (PDF). Journal of the American Osteopathic Association. 119 (11): 736–746. doi:10.7556/jaoa.2019.123. PMID 31633743. S2CID 204814110.
  48. ^ Dinu M, Abbate R, Gensini GF, et al. (22 November 2017). "Vegetarian, vegan diets and multiple health outcomes: A systematic review with meta-analysis of observational studies". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 57 (17): 3640–3649. doi:10.1080/10408398.2016.1138447. ISSN 1549-7852. PMID 26853923. S2CID 10073754.
  49. ^ Tomova A, Bukovsky I, Rembert E, et al. (2019). "The Effects of Vegetarian and Vegan Diets on Gut Microbiota". Frontiers in Nutrition. 6: 47. doi:10.3389/fnut.2019.00047. PMC 6478664. PMID 31058160.
  50. ^ Tindall AM, Petersen KS, Kris-Etherton PM (September 2018). "Dietary Patterns Affect the Gut Microbiome-The Link to Risk of Cardiometabolic Diseases". The Journal of Nutrition. 148 (9): 1402–1407. doi:10.1093/jn/nxy141. PMC 7263841. PMID 30184227.
  51. ^ Dybvik JS, Svendsen M, Aune D (27 August 2022). "Vegetarian and vegan diets and the risk of cardiovascular disease, ischemic heart disease and stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies". European Journal of Nutrition. 62 (1): 51–69. doi:10.1007/s00394-022-02942-8. ISSN 1436-6215. PMC 9899747. PMID 36030329. S2CID 251866952.
  52. ^ Gibbs J, Gaskin E, Ji C, et al. (January 2021). "The effect of plant-based dietary patterns on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled intervention trials" (PDF). Journal of Hypertension. 39 (1): 23–37. doi:10.1097/HJH.0000000000002604. ISSN 1473-5598. PMID 33275398. S2CID 225483653.
  53. ^ Yokoyama Y, Nishimura K, Barnard ND, et al. (April 2014). "Vegetarian diets and blood pressure: a meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine. 174 (4): 577–587. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.14547. ISSN 2168-6114. PMID 24566947.
  54. ^ Yokoyama Y, Levin SM, Barnard ND (1 September 2017). "Association between plant-based diets and plasma lipids: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Nutrition Reviews. 75 (9): 683–698. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nux030. ISSN 1753-4887. PMC 5914369. PMID 28938794.
  55. ^ Wang F, Zheng J, Yang B, et al. (27 October 2015). "Effects of Vegetarian Diets on Blood Lipids: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". Journal of the American Heart Association. 4 (10): e002408. doi:10.1161/JAHA.115.002408. ISSN 2047-9980. PMC 4845138. PMID 26508743.
  56. ^ Lopez PD, Cativo EH, Atlas SA, et al. (July 2019). "The Effect of Vegan Diets on Blood Pressure in Adults: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". The American Journal of Medicine. 132 (7): 875–883.e7. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2019.01.044. ISSN 1555-7162. PMID 30851264. S2CID 73498903.
  57. ^ Benatar JR, Stewart RA (2018). "Cardiometabolic risk factors in vegans; A meta-analysis of observational studies". PLOS ONE. 13 (12): e0209086. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1309086B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0209086. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6301673. PMID 30571724.
  58. ^ Ma X, Tan H, Hu M, et al. (November 2021). "The impact of plant-based diets on female bone mineral density: Evidence based on seventeen studies". Medicine. 100 (46): e27480. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000027480. PMC 8601298. PMID 34797275.
  59. ^ Iguacel I, Miguel-Berges ML, Gómez-Bruton A, et al. (January 2019). "Veganism, vegetarianism, bone mineral density, and fracture risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Nutrition Reviews. 77 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuy045. PMID 30376075.
  60. ^ Li T, Li Y, Wu S (June 2021). "Comparison of human bone mineral densities in subjects on plant-based and omnivorous diets: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Archives of Osteoporosis. 16 (1): 95. doi:10.1007/s11657-021-00955-0. PMID 34145511. S2CID 235475271.
  61. ^ Craddock JC, Neale EP, Peoples GE, et al. (May 2019). "Vegetarian-Based Dietary Patterns and their Relation with Inflammatory and Immune Biomarkers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Advances in Nutrition. 10 (3): 433–451. doi:10.1093/advances/nmy103. PMC 6520040. PMID 30947338.
  62. ^ Menzel J, Jabakhanji A, Biemann R, et al. (December 2020). "Systematic review and meta-analysis of the associations of vegan and vegetarian diets with inflammatory biomarkers". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 21736. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1021736M. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-78426-8. PMC 7730154. PMID 33303765.
  63. ^ Escalante-Araiza F, Rivera-Monroy G, Loza-López CE, et al. (April 2022). "The effect of plant-based diets on meta-inflammation and associated cardiometabolic disorders: a review". Nutrition Reviews. 80 (9): 2017–2028. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuac020. PMID 35475468.
  64. ^ Boushey C, Ard J, Bazzano L, et al. (2020). Dietary Patterns and All-Cause Mortality: A Systematic Review. USDA Nutrition Evidence Systematic Reviews. USDA Nutrition Evidence Systematic Review. doi:10.52570/NESR.DGAC2020.SR0108. PMID 35258870. S2CID 236333620.
  65. ^ Damasceno YO, Leitão CV, de Oliveira GM, et al. (23 October 2023). "Plant-based diets benefit aerobic performance and do not compromise strength/power performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis". The British Journal of Nutrition. 131 (5): 829–840. doi:10.1017/S0007114523002258. ISSN 1475-2662. PMID 37869973.
  66. ^ a b Carrington D (3 February 2021). "Plant-based diets crucial to saving global wildlife, says report". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  67. ^ Poore J, Nemecek T (June 2018). "Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers". Science. 360 (6392): 987–992. Bibcode:2018Sci...360..987P. doi:10.1126/science.aaq0216. PMID 29853680.
  68. ^ Carey CN, Paquette M, Sahye-Pudaruth S, et al. (6 February 2023). "The Environmental Sustainability of Plant-Based Dietary Patterns: A Scoping Review". The Journal of Nutrition. 153 (3): S0022–3166(23)06589–6. doi:10.1016/j.tjnut.2023.02.001. ISSN 1541-6100. PMID 36809853. S2CID 256652205.
  69. ^ Hedenus F, Wirsenius S, Johansson DJ (2014). "The importance of reduced meat and dairy consumption for meeting stringent climate change targets". Climatic Change. 124 (1–2): 79–91. Bibcode:2014ClCh..124...79H. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1104-5.
  70. ^ "Sustainability pathways: Livestock and landscapes" (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations. 2012. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
  71. ^ Torrella K (1 February 2022). "This is how much meat and dairy hurt the climate". Vox. Retrieved 3 July 2022.
  72. ^ "Soy agriculture in the Amazon Basin". Yale University. 2019. Archived from the original on 5 June 2019. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
  73. ^ Rowland MP. "The most effective way to save the planet". Forbes. Retrieved 5 June 2019. meat and dairy provide only 18% of our calories and 37% of our protein, yet use up 83% of our farmland.
  74. ^ Torrella K (22 April 2022). "The difference you make when you eat less meat". Vox. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  75. ^ O'Malley K, Willits-Smith A, Aranda R, et al. (1 June 2019). "Vegan vs Paleo: Carbon Footprints and Diet Quality of 5 Popular Eating Patterns as Reported by US Consumers (P03-007-19)". Current Developments in Nutrition. 3 (Suppl 1): nzz047.P03–007–19. doi:10.1093/cdn/nzz047.P03-007-19. ISSN 2475-2991. PMC 6574879.
  76. ^ "Changing what we eat could offset years of climate-warming emissions, new analysis finds". phys.org. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
  77. ^ Hayek MN, Harwatt H, Ripple WJ, et al. (7 September 2020). "The carbon opportunity cost of animal-sourced food production on land". Nature Sustainability. 4 (1): 21–24. Bibcode:2020NatSu...4...21H. doi:10.1038/s41893-020-00603-4. ISSN 2398-9629. S2CID 221522148. Retrieved 9 October 2020.
  78. ^ Einhorn L. "Normative Social Influence on Meat Consumption". MPG.PuRe. Max Planck Society. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
  79. ^ Centola D, Becker J, Brackbill D (8 June 2018). "Experimental evidence for tipping points in social convention". Science. 360 (6393): 1116–1119. Bibcode:2018Sci...360.1116C. doi:10.1126/science.aas8827. PMID 29880688. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
  80. ^ "How plant-based diets not only reduce our carbon footprint, but also increase carbon capture". Leiden University. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
  81. ^ Sun Z, Scherer L, Tukker A, et al. (January 2022). "Dietary change in high-income nations alone can lead to substantial double climate dividend". Nature Food. 3 (1): 29–37. doi:10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5. ISSN 2662-1355. PMID 37118487. S2CID 245867412.
  82. ^ Carrington D (20 July 2023). "Vegan diet massively cuts environmental damage, study shows". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
  83. ^ Marashli I (16 September 2023). "Meat, milk alternatives could slash food system emissions a third: study". Phys.org. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
  84. ^ Kozicka M, Havlík P, Valin H, et al. (2023). "Feeding climate and biodiversity goals with novel plant-based meat and milk alternatives". Nature Communications. 14 (5316): 5316. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14.5316K. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-40899-2. hdl:10568/131912. PMC 10497520. PMID 37699877.
  85. ^ Graham M (14 September 2023). "New Study Shows Impacts of Cutting Meat and Dairy Consumption in Half". Mother Jones. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
  86. ^ Kwasny T, Dobernig K, Riefler P (1 January 2022). "Towards reduced meat consumption: A systematic literature review of intervention effectiveness, 2001–2019". Appetite. 168: 105739. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2021.105739. ISSN 1095-8304. PMID 34648912. S2CID 238588727.
  87. ^ "Livsmedelsverket". livsmedelsverket.se. Retrieved 6 June 2021.
  88. ^ "Planetary Health Diet: Speiseplan für eine gesunde und nachhaltige Ernährung". bzfe.de (in German). Retrieved 6 June 2021.
  89. ^ "Climate activist Greta Thunberg takes on food industry". Deutsche Welle. 23 May 2021. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
  90. ^ Taylor M (18 May 2022). "'World is at boiling point': humanity must redefine relationship with nature, says report". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  91. ^ Vegconomist (24 October 2023). "South Korea Becomes Second Country to Embrace National Plan for Plant-Based Foods". Retrieved 2 November 2023.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plant-based_diet&oldid=1247764726"