[go: up one dir, main page]
Jump to content

Minor league football (gridiron)

Add links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Minor league football)
Minor League Football
SportGridiron football
No. of teamsVaries
CountriesUnited States and Mexico
TV partner(s)
Related
competitions		UFL, LFA, GDFL, RPFL and Indoor football leagues

Minor league football, also known as alternative football or secondary football, is an umbrella term for professional gridiron football that is played below the major league level.

The National Football League and Canadian Football League are both designated as major leagues, but contrary to the four other major sports leagues in North America—Major League Baseball, Major League Soccer, the National Basketball Association, and the National Hockey League—no formal development farm system was in use after the NFL severed ties with all minor league teams in 1948.[1][2][3] The developmental league concept was shuttered again with the cancellation of NFL Europe in 2006.[4]

Since 2018, the CFL has had a partnership agreement with the Professional American Football League of Mexico (LFA) for player development,[5] but does not consider it a minor league in the traditional sense.[6] In 2023, the NFL signed a collaboration agreement with the XFL on rules, equipment, and safety testing, but the agreement does not cover sharing players for developmental purposes.[7]

There have been professional football leagues of varying levels since the invention of the sport, and over the years there have been attempts to organize development or farm leagues such as the Association of Professional Football Leagues[8][9][10] and the World League of American Football, later known as NFL Europe and then NFL Europa, but they failed to produce profits and were eventually shut down.[11] As a result, over time the North American leagues settled into an informal hierarchy, with many aspiring entrepreneurs trying to establish rival, alternative, or supplemental leagues to the NFL, similar to baseball's independent leagues. Apart from the All-America Football Conference and the American Football League, which merged with the NFL, none of the other leagues have succeeded,[12] particularly because the leagues' inability to generate television revenue to keep them afloat in their first years of existence.[13][14]

In modern times, the NFL has developed players not ready for the active roster through each team's practice squad, or relied on college football[15][16][17][18] and separate entities like the now-defunct Arena Football League[19][20][21] as their feeder organizations. Since the beginning of the 21st century, three fledgling pro football leagues—the United Football League,[22] the Fall Experimental Football League[23][24] and the Alliance of American Football (AAF)[25][26]—had hoped to create a relationship with the NFL as developmental minor leagues, but all folded without any such connection being made. Nevertheless, some players did find a path to the NFL through those leagues, especially the high-level ones like the AAF, XFL, and United States Football League (USFL).[27]

Currently, there are four active minor leagues in North America: the United Football League (UFL), the Gridiron Developmental Football League, the Rivals Professional Football League, and the Liga de Fútbol Americano Profesional, with the latter the only Mexican league. The UFL is considered a high-level league, and the rest are viewed as low-level leagues.

History

[edit]

Early circuits (1890–1919)

[edit]

The birth of semi-professional football can be traced back to the 1880s, when most sports clubs in America had a team playing football, and ostensibly played without paid players. In reality, most teams often found ways around that, and acquired the best players with the promise of jobs and trophies or watches to play against top regional clubs and colleges. While the practice of professional and semi-pro teams playing college and amateur teams was common in the 1880s and 1890s, most notably with the establishment of a coalition of teams that operated from 1886 to 1895 in the New York metropolitan area called the American Football Union, in the 20th century college and professional football began to diverge, and college-professional interplay effectively ended after the NCAA formed in 1906. During this time, the most prominent circuit was the Western Pennsylvania Professional Football Circuit.[28]

The first attempt to form a pro league was the National Football League of 1902, which, despite its name, was a Pennsylvania regional league, with two teams based in Philadelphia and the third from Pittsburgh. The next step came when promoter Tom O'Rourke established the World Series of Football, also in 1902. The series played indoors at New York City's Madison Square Garden and consisted of five teams: three from the state of New York, one from New Jersey, and another team called New York comprising two Philadelphia teams, the Athletics and Phillies.[29] The 1903 series also featured the Franklin Athletic Club from Pennsylvania.[28]

At the same time, the Massillon Tigers, the Columbus Panhandles, and the Canton Bulldogs, all from Ohio, started attracting much of the top professional football talent in America: Harry McChesney, Bob Shiring, the Nesser brothers, Blondy Wallace, Cub Buck, and later Jim Thorpe, and gave rise to the Ohio League. The league was actually a circuit— an informal and loose association of independent teams playing other local teams and competing for the Ohio Independent Championship. The group pioneered the concept of avoiding competition with college football games by playing games on Sundays, which was illegal in other states due to the existing blue laws. This eventually became the professional standard.[28]

The Ohio League decade-long monopoly began to lose hold in the 1910s, with the formation of the New York Pro Football League (NYPFL), first league to use a playoff format, and other associations in the Midwest, particularly in Illinois. The rise in level of play resulted in barnstorming tours between the circuits, which laid the foundations for the first truly national major league: the American Professional Football Association in 1920, which later became the NFL.[28]

The Golden Era

[edit]

The first minor leagues period of prosperity or "heyday"[8] started in the 1920s and lasted until the end of World War II. By the 1930s, football was not a fledgling enterprise, but pro football was, as even the National Football League had trouble attracting fans, and was located mostly in the northeastern quarter of the United States. In other parts of the country, several regional leagues tried their luck in the pro game, along with flourishing regional circuits of independent teams, recapturing the pro football roots. The era is also considered the best of all time, due to the quality of play, as there were only 250 players in the NFL, while the regional leagues could sometimes offer better pay and jobs, and offered black players opportunity to play during the period of 1933–1946, when they were excluded from all NFL teams.[30][31]

In 1934, the American Football League (AFL) was the first true attempt to establish pro football in the American South and Southwest regions. The league was formed by the strongest independent teams in the region, including the Memphis Tigers, who claimed the national pro championship in 1929, after beating the NFL champion Green Bay Packers. The AFL had only one season of competition and folded after only the Memphis Tigers and Charlotte Bantams completed their seasons.[32]

Another strong southern league was the Dixie League, which represented Mid Atlantic teams. The league was one of the most successful minor leagues in history, playing eight seasons in eleven years, while claiming to be the highest level minor football league of the era. Unlike most pro-football minor leagues, the Dixie League had a relative stable membership until the Pearl Harbor attack forced the league into hiatus. The league returned in 1946, but folded in 1947 after playing only one week.[33]

The Dixie League's biggest counterpart was the American Association (AA) football league. The AA was formed by the nucleus of independent teams that played in the New York and New Jersey circuits, and was led by president Joe Rosentover. The league teams sought relationships with the NFL, and several teams, including the Newark Bears, Brooklyn Eagles, and Jersey City Giants, functioned as a farm system for the major NFL teams. The league allowed black players to participate, including the last African-American in the NFL in 1933, Joe Lillard. Most teams scheduled games against the independent Fritz Pollard's Harlem Brown Bombers. The league closed operations during World War II, and after a four-year hiatus, the AA was renamed the American Football League and expanded to include teams in Ohio and Pennsylvania. The league's demise was caused by the NFL severing ties with all minor league teams in 1948.[34]

The last of the "Big Three Leagues"[35] was the Pacific Coast Professional Football League, which started in 1940. The roots of pro football in the west are attributable to the Red Grange barnstorming tour with the Chicago Bears in 1926,[36] as some short-lived leagues, including the 1926 Pacific Coast Professional Football League (PCPFL) and 1934–1935 American Legion League, were formed. The PCPFL was formed thanks to the financial backbone of the sport in California, the Los Angeles Bulldogs, billed as the "best football team in existence outside the NFL",[30][37] and the only prominent minor football league to operate during the war years. The league became home to the top African American football talents in the country, including Kenny Washington, Woody Strode, Ozzie Simmons, Mel Reid, and briefly Jackie Robinson during the NFL enforced color barrier. The league played its last season in 1948, two years after the NFL moved the Los Angeles Rams to Los Angeles.[38][39] The Big Three reached an agreement with the NFL, and in 1946 formed the Association of Professional Football Leagues as a formal farm system with the league. The agreement lasted less than two years, after the NFL cancelled it altogether in 1948.[2] The termination triggered the end of the era.

Other prominent leagues were the Anthracite League of Pennsylvania, the Eastern League of Professional Football based in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, the Ohio Valley League, the Midwest Football League, and the Northwest War Industries League in Washington and Oregon. During the 1930s and 1940s, there were also strong independent circuits in Greater New York metropolitan area and the Northeast.[40]

The second wave

[edit]

The minor leagues experienced a renaissance in the 1960s and 1970s; their growing relevance occurred alongside the AFL and NFL rivalry.[13] Several prominent leagues operated during that period and were mostly regional. The original United Football League (UFL) lasted from 1961 to 1964 and was concentrated in the Midwest, and was the first football league to operate teams in both the United States and Canada, as the Quebec Rifles played in the league in 1964. The Northeast Atlantic Coast Football League (ACFL) formed in 1962 and was run by Joe Rosentover, former president of the 1930s AA.[41]

In April 1964, the two leagues, along with the Central States Football League, the Midwest Football League, and the Southern Football League, formed the Association of Minor Football Leagues. The association also included the non-paying semi-pro New England Football Conference,[42][43] and appointed UFL commissioner George T. Gareff as the CEO.[44] The association represented teams in fifty cities spanning twenty-one U.S. states plus Quebec, and scheduled exhibition games between leagues,[45] but disbanded after two years without notice.

When the UFL folded and the Newark Bears of the ACFL unsuccessfully applied to join the AFL, two new national leagues formed. The first was the North American Football League (NAFL),[13] which ran from 1965 to 1966, and tried to establish major league affiliations with either the NFL or the AFL. The second, the Continental Football League (CoFL), which ran from 1965 to 1971, was probably the biggest in the era, and attracted three teams from the ACFL: the Hartford Charter Oaks, the Newark Bears, and the Norfolk Neptunes.

Some of the other notable leagues were the Professional Football League of America (PFLA),[46] which lasted from 1965 to 1967 and played in the Midwest, essentially replacing the UFL, the North Pacific Football League (NPFL), and the Texas Football League (TFL), which operated in the southern United States. Those leagues would later merge with the CoFL, as several teams from the NPFL joined the league in 1966, and the PFLA followed in 1968, resulting in the dissolution of both leagues.[47] In 1969, the CoFL announced the all eight teams from TFL were being added to its ranks as a separate division, and were scheduled to play mostly against each other, along with a few inter-league contests.[48]

The two bigger leagues, the CoFL and ACFL, had different strategies: the CoFL aimed to remain independent, while the ACFL functioned as a developmental league and, like previous Rosentover leagues, allowed its teams to become farm teams for the AFL and NFL.[13] Over their existence, the CoFL arguably had better talent move on to NFL and Canadian Football League (CFL) stardom, including Ken Stabler, Don Jonas, and Sam Wyche, but folded in 1969, and again in 1971 as an incarnation called the Trans-American Football League formed with remnants of the TFL; plans to take on the Canadian Football League head-to-head were abandoned. Although the revival as the TAFL was largely a failure, the league foreshadowed the future of minor football, as it played its season in the spring to avoid direct competition against football in the fall.[49][50]

The ACFL also produced some significant talent, such as Pro Bowler Marvin Hubbard, first female professional football player Patricia Palinkas, who was placeholder for her husband Stephen, and cult figure King Corcoran. It also lasted longer. The league operated continuously through 1971, with a return season in 1973, which was played mostly by promoted teams from the lower-level Seaboard Football League (SFL), which in turn, brought up semi-pro teams to replace them.[51] However, the attempted major World Football League (WFL) sapped both leagues of most of their talent, forcing them to fold by 1974. The league's first collapse in 1972, along with the demise of the Midwest Professional Football League, ended the era of NFL teams having individual farm teams.

During its existence, the SFL hovered between a minor league and semi-pro, as some of its players, most notably Joe Klecko,[52] were never paid, and others received only fifty dollars per game. Despite that, the league had some notable alumni, including Vince Papale, Jack Dolbin, and Klecko. Additionally, the league was the last minor league to play an inter-league exhibition match against an NFL team, when the New York Jets rookies defeated Long Island Chiefs 29–3.[53][54][51]

One other minor league attempt in the 1970s was the American Football Association (AFA), which operated from 1977 to 1983, was less successful, as it struggled to acquire recognizable players and failed to secure a TV deal.[55] The AFA followed the model set by the TAFL, and played its from May to August.[56] The formation of the first United States Football League (USFL) in 1982 led to a decline in AFA talent, a move to semi-pro status, and a cancellation of the league entirely after the 1983 season.

Near the end of the era, there was one last attempt to organize non-NFL pro teams under one umbrella, with the establishment of the Minor Professional Football Association, which represented more than 200 teams and about 10,000 players.[57] From 1980 through 1985, the association sponsored an annual post-season championship tournament for minor league teams, with an attempt to establish a minor-league system. In 1981 the association reached an agreement with the NFL to hold a special national all-star game for minor leaguers, the day before the Super Bowl, with scouts in attendance. The NFL had the right to sign any player from the association for a $1,500 payment to the team that held his contract. But the agreement did not continue, and in 1986 the association reformed into the American Football Association (AFA) and focused on providing services to semi-pro and amateur teams around the US.[58] The development of arena football and the birth of the Arena Football League (AFL) in 1987 effectively ended the era, reducing most outdoor leagues to amateur or semi-pro status.

NFL Europe

[edit]
Main article: NFL Europe

After the turmoil in the 1980s, the NFL decided to form its own league in 1991, the World League of American Football, as a spring developmental league. For the first time, an American sport league had a European division as part of its ten-team league,[59] while the other teams were located in continental US and Canada. The league was used to test rule changes and technical innovations[60] and planned as a farm system for NFL teams. However, the first two seasons produced low TV ratings,[61] and the league was put on hiatus until 1995. When it came back, the league was based entirely in Europe, reduced to six teams, and re-branded in 1998 as NFL Europe. The league kept the same format until 2007, when the NFL terminated it.[62] Ultimately, the league was one of the longest tenured high-level minor leagues in history, lasting fifteen years in total and producing players like Hall of Famer Kurt Warner and Super Bowl quarterbacks Brad Johnson and Jake Delhomme.[63] Other notable players include Dante Hall, David Akers, James Harrison, Adam Vinatieri, and William Perry.

Modern era

[edit]

Early 2000s

[edit]

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a wave of entrepreneurs tried forming new leagues in the ever growing football market.

The first league was the self-styled "major league of spring football" Regional Football League (RFL) that played a single season in 1999. The league was initially planned to begin in 1998,[64] but financial difficulties delayed it by a year and changed the business plan, transforming it into a lower-budget league featuring just six teams from mid-sized cities mostly located the southern United States.[65][66][67] The league did not prosper, as it failed to secure a television contract and was forced to play a shortened eight-week season.[68] Although the league was unsuccessful, it pioneered the idea of assigning players teams based of the region where they played in college.

Parallel to the RFL, there were two more attempts to start up new leagues. The first, the International Football Federation, folded so rapidly it is considered the shortest football league in history, ceasing operations before completing the preliminary planning stages.[69] The second, the Spring Football League, was founded by several ex-NFL players: Bo Jackson, Drew Pearson, Eric Dickerson, and Tony Dorsett. It failed to attract big investors on account of the tech-market crash of 2000, and was cancelled after only two weeks.[70]

The next attempt was probably the most significant since the emergence of the AFL in 1960, as NBC and the WWE collaborate to form the (original) XFL in 2001.[71] Although 14 million viewers tuned in for the first game, the Nielsen ratings later plummeted and triggered NBC to pulled out of its broadcast contract, and the league folded after one season. The league featured several changes in rules and broadcast style, and gave birth to the Skycam in sports broadcasting.[72][73]

From the late 2000s into the early 2010s, many startup leagues had trouble attracting investors. Five high-profile attempts by the All American Football[74] and United National Gridiron[75] leagues in 2007, the New United States Football League in 2010 and 2014,[76][77] and the A-11 Football League in 2014,[78] never materialized. Two other leagues in the era were the low-level New World Football League (NWFL)[79] and the Stars Football League (SFL),[80] both of which survived three seasons: the NWFL from 2008 to 2010, and the SFL from 2011 to 2013.

The 2009 United Football League (UFL) was the most prominent league in the era, playing 3½ seasons before folding.[81] The UFL was fairly successful, attracting big crowds in Omaha, Sacramento, and Hartford and airing all league games on Versus, HDnet, and over the Internet, and had plans to expand.[82] It functioned as a single-entity league following the Major League Soccer model. The UFL featured former NFL players, and was the first professional fall league other than the National Football League to play in the United States since the mid-1970s. The league collapsed in the middle of its 2012 season, failing to pay the bills after most investors stepped out.[83]

The Fall Experimental Football League (FXFL), founded in 2014, was the first league that openly embraced the minor league concept, and aimed to become a professional feeder system for the NFL since the 1970's. The league owner, Brian Woods, wanted his franchises to be primarily based in minor league baseball stadiums, and use the infrastructure in place to attract fans. The FXFL attracted the final NFL roster cuts, for the purpose of keeping them "in football shape, physically and mentally".[84] The league was cancelled after two abbreviated seasons, and was reformatted as the developmental Spring League in 2016.[85]

New resurgence

[edit]

In 2018, several figures with connections to the original 2001 XFL entered the spring-football market with rival leagues. The first was the Alliance of American Football (AAF), founded by Charlie Ebersol and Bill Polian, which began playing in 2019, but ceased operations eight weeks in, as the controlling owner Thomas Dundon decided to pull the plug after the league made a deal with the NFL, which planned to take ownership of 15% of the league.[86]

The second was the relaunched version of the XFL, as Vince McMahon hired Oliver Luck as commissioner. The league first began play in 2020, with more success and a better reception than its first iteration, and aired on ABC, ESPN, and Fox Sports. After five weeks of play, the XFL announced its season would end because of growing COVID-19 pandemic concerns. The league was on hiatus in 2021 and 2022, after it filed for bankruptcy and put up for sale by McMahon and was later sold to Dany Garcia, Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson and RedBird Capital,[87] and began its second season on February 18, 2023.[88]

Six other leagues have entered the planning stage, but have yet to launch.[89] The first is the Spring League of American Football, a planned high-level minor league that was first announced in September 2016, by two former Madison Square Garden executives, but did not acquire any funding to begin play. As of 2023, the league appears defunct, with no official website and no news since 2018. Major League Football was founded in 2014, but so far only has two cancelled seasons in 2016 and 2022. The American Patriot League was founded in 2018 and planned to start in 2019, held two league showcase and allocated players and coaches to teams,[90] but still hasn't launched because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Another planned league is the Freedom Football League, also founded in 2018, run by former NFL players Jeff Garcia, Ricky Williams, Terrell Owens, and Simeon Rice, with an initial 2020 starting season, but with no recent updates to its timeline.

The last two were developmental-level leagues. The first was Pacific Pro Football, founded in 2017 and designed for non-NFL eligible players; it was abandoned in mid-2020 after several investors backed out, and was reformatted to a scouting event called HUB Football.[91] The other, Your Call Football, did start, lasted from 2018 to 2019, and featured concepts that gave the fans the power to control the outcome, which were also adopted by the indoor Fan Controlled Football league, but was abandoned when its parent company moved on to adapting the technology in other sporting environments.

Since 2017, a developmental league called The Spring League (TSL) was aimed at professional athletes but acted as "instructional league and showcase for professional football talent" with abbreviated seasons. On June 3, 2021, TSL owner Brian Woods announced that he had acquired the remaining extant trademarks of the United States Football League and launched a USFL-branded league in 2022, with Fox Sports owning the league and reportedly committing $150 million over three years to its operations,[92][93] essentially ending the five years run of TSL,[94] and establishing the USFL as a new high-level minor league.[95]

In late 2023, the XFL and USFL merged to form a new league, taking the name United Football League. The league comprises four former XFL teams and four former USFL teams.[96]

System and structure

[edit]

There have been professional football leagues of varying levels since the invention of the sport, with the NFL dominant through most of the 20th century and into the 21st. There have been many attempts to start rival major leagues, most recently the original United States Football League (USFL), but most leagues that followed have been high-level minor leagues such as the XFL, the UFL and the AAF. Whether major or minor, most football leagues have tried to establish teams in large, untapped U.S. markets.[97]

Most of the minor leagues have been separated through the years into three de facto categories:[98] high-level, including the Pacific Coast Professional Football League (PCPFL),[99] the original XFL,[100] and the Alliance of American Football (AAF);[101][102][103][104] low-level, such as the American Football Association (AFA) and Seaboard Football League (SFL); and semi-professional leagues. Today, there are also mid-level leagues, including the Regional Football League (RFL) and Fall Experimental Football League (FXFL)[105][106][107] and developmental leagues,[108] such as The Spring League (TSL)[109][110] and Your Call Football.[111]

The categories are usually determined by the following rules: the high-level leagues salaries are above the median personal income in the United States, mid-level leagues pay at approximately median level, and the low-level leagues pay around or below the minimum wage in the United States. The developmental leagues do not pay salaries or contract with non-NFL eligible players, and are designed to showcase the players' skills for future opportunities.[108]

Since 1998, there have been more than twenty traditional or indoor football leagues that played an average of 3½ years before folding or merging with others; some never reached the stage of playing games.[112] There are four active minor leagues in North America: the high-level United Football League (UFL); and three low-level leagues, the Gridiron Developmental Football League, the Rivals Professional Football League, and the Mexican Liga de Fútbol Americano Profesional.

Indoor American football

[edit]

The high cost of supporting an entire roster of professional players and stadium fees led to an indoor variation with the launch of the Arena Football League (AFL) in 1987. In its heyday, the it functioned as de facto minor league to the NFL, as six NFL team owners—Atlanta Falcons, Dallas Cowboys, Denver Broncos, Detroit Lions, New Orleans Saints and Tennessee Titans—had purchased teams in the AFL,[113] and many players and coaches made the transition between leagues.[114] On February 8, 1999, the NFL also purchased, but never exercised, an option to buy a major interest in the AFL.[115][116][117] Currently, the Indoor Football League (IFL) has a player personnel partnership with the XFL and later with the UFL, to function as their de facto minor league.[118][119]

Prior to the first AFL's collapse in 2008, the league had its own minor developmental league called af2, which never actually functioned as a farm system, and was used to test potential new markets (or growing the game to markets who couldn't sustain a AFL team) and rule changes,[120] but it dissolved after the 2009 season amid financial problems rooted in the 2007–2008 financial crisis and several of its teams joined the second AFL, which began play in 2010.[121]

Today, the indoor variation of football also has an unofficial minor-league hierarchy, although no major indoor league exists currently after the second AFL went bankrupt in 2019.[20][122][123] Pro leagues pay varying salaries on a per-game basis, while the high-level leagues also provide housing, health insurance, and two meals per day to players during the season.

The categories are more fluid than the outdoor variation, but usually determined by per-game salaries and arena size:

As of 2024, CIF has been absorbed into a league reviving the Arena Football League name.[129]

Semi-pro football

[edit]

Semi-pro leagues have existed since the beginning of American football, but were far more common in the early and mid 20th century than they are today. Football is especially suited for semi-pro play, and most leagues often operate at a semi-professional level due to cost concerns. Furthermore, because they play only one game per week, the players are able to pursue outside employment. In the 21st century, the semi-pro circuits usually attract only local players and teams don't pay salaries, although in the past most teams helped players find local jobs within the community. Over the years, semi-pro leagues were effectively a farm system for the NFL, attracting college players on the cusp of playing in the NFL who needed to stay in shape.[130][131][132][133][134][135][136]

The semi-pro game experienced two peak periods: first in the 1950s, then in the 1970s and 1980s, when minor leagues started disappearing. Instead, the level below the NFL tended to take the form of local, sometimes unofficial leagues matching teams from different neighborhoods or suburbs of big cities with little to no pay.[46] The semi-pro leagues role in history is best portrayed in the 1987 24-day NFLPA Strike, when semi-pro players were called up as replacements after the third week of the NFL season was cancelled.[137][138] Their stories are documented in the 2017 ESPN film Year of the Scab.[139] The decline of semi-pro football is attributable to the rise of college football in the 1980s,[16] and the subsequent growth of a vast pool of young talent from which the NFL can draw.

Notable semi-pro players include Johnny Unitas, who played quarterback, safety, and punter on a Pittsburgh suburb team called the Bloomfield Rams for six dollars per game before joining the Baltimore Colts;[140] Eric Swann, who played for the Bay State Titans in the Boston suburb of Lynn and was the first, and so far the only, player to be drafted into the NFL draft first round from a semi-pro organization; and Ray Seals, who did not play college football, but made his way to the NFL through the semi-pro rank Syracuse Express.

The Watertown Red & Black, a semi-professional team from Upstate New York, is the oldest existing football club, tracing its history to 1896.[141]

Minor League Football System

[edit]

After the decline of the minor leagues in the 1980s, the semi-pro circuit tried to fill that niche. In the summer of 1989, the Minor League Football System (MLFS) was formed as an attempt to develop a nationwide semi-pro football league.[131][142][143] The circuit had aspirations to become a feeder system for the NFL[143] and featured eleven teams in as many states. The league's commissioner was Roger Wehrli.[142] Because the league wanted to attract good local talent but did not pay any salary, it functioned as a temporary employment agency, and offered jobs and housing for players in local communities during the season.[143][144] Despite that, it managed to attract decent talent, including ex-NFL players such as Rusty Hilger and Ben Rudolph, as well as coaches including Walt Michaels, Darryl Rogers and Lou Saban.[145] After a successful first season, the league attracted strong sponsors in Wilson and Gatorade,[146] but two teams folded midway through the second year, while the rest folded after the end of the season, unable to establish a working agreement with the NFL.

Modern circuit

[edit]

Today, most leagues and independent teams are sanctioned by the American Football Association,[147] which acts as an organizer of games and playoff tournaments for teams throughout the U.S. and maintains a Minor League/Semi-Pro Football Hall of Fame.[148][149][150] Another semi-pro organization is the USA Bowl Championship Series,[151] which ranks the top twenty-five semi-pro and amateur teams in the country, and crowns an annual "national champion" at the USA Bowl. The final such association is the United States Federation of American Football,[152] which tries to divide the existing leagues into AAA and AA groups rated by business practices, representation, and athletics;[153] it was formerly recognized by the International Federation of American Football as the USA's football governing body.[154]

Under USA Football and Football Canada criteria, players at this level are eligible for the United States national American football team and Canada men's national football team, respectively.[155]

The prominent present-day leagues in the adult amateur/semi-pro US circuit are:

League First season Type Geographical area
Amateur to Professional Developmental Football League[156][108][157] 2013[158] Outdoor Southeast
American 7s Football League 2014 Seven-man Football Traveling league
American Flag Football League 2018 Flag football Traveling league
East Coast Football League[159][160] 2013 Outdoor New England
Eastern Football League[161][162][163] 1961[164] Outdoor Northeastern
Empire Football League 1969 Outdoor New York State
Florida Football Alliance 2008 Outdoor Florida
Mason-Dixon Football League[165][166][167] 1978[168] Outdoor Mid-Atlantic
MidStates Football League[169][170][171] 1999[172] Outdoor North Central
Minor Football League[173][174][175][176] 1993 Outdoor Eastern & Central United States
North Louisiana Football Alliance 2020 Nine-man football South Central
New England Football League* 1994 Outdoor New England
Pacific Coast Football League[177][178][179] 2006[180] Outdoor California
Pacific Northwest Football League[181][182] 2016 Outdoor Pacific Northwest
Rocky Mountain Football League[183][184] 1997[185] Outdoor Rocky Mountains

* The NEFL is unique in the American sports landscape, allowing promotion and relegation among conferences.

In Canada there are three prominent leagues:

League First season Type Geographical area
Alberta Football League (AFL) 1984 Three downs Alberta
Maritime Football League (MFL) 2001 Three downs Maritime Provinces
Northern Football Conference (NFC) 1954 Four downs Ontario

The AFL and NFC are considered bigger leagues, and every September the NFC champion meets the champion of the AFL to determine the Canadian Major Football League national champions.[186] Canada also has three prominent junior leagues: the Atlantic Football League, the Canadian Junior Football League, and the Quebec Junior Football League.

International American Football Leagues

[edit]

American football continues to grow in popularity worldwide, and has had International Olympic Committee recognition since 2013. The NFL has tried to expand their exposure to additional markets by playing games outside the United States. The first pro game outside the U.S. and Canada was played in Japan in 1976.[187] In 1978 the NFL played in Mexico,[188][189] and in 1983 they had their first game in Europe, in London.[190]

With the success of the international series in the 1970s and 1980s, other countries established their own leagues that have earned good reputations over the years, especially the long-established leagues throughout Europe and in Japan. European leagues and teams attract and sign American coaches and import players, some of whom have NFL experience, from U.S. colleges or other leagues. The number of import players allowed per team is set by league rules. The typical American import player contract includes a monthly salary, housing, insurance, transportation, round trip flights, meals, and possible performance bonuses. The top leagues in Europe are traditionally the German Football League (GFL), Austrian Football League, Italian Football League, and the Finnish league. The X-League in Japan, which plays under NCAA or NFL rules, is also very strong.[191]

Usually the foreign players in the National Football League moved to the US early, and played the game in college, but there are exceptions. Anthony Dablé, a French football player, was the first foreign pro player to sign in the NFL. Moritz Böhringer was drafted in 2016 directly from the GFL, but did not play in an official game before returning to the GFL in 2021. Efe Obada was the first player to make an NFL 53-man active roster. Since 2017, the NFL has run the International Player Pathway Program (IPPP) to increase the number of non-American and non-Canadian players in the league.[192][193]

Since 2017, the Canadian Football League (CFL) has tried to globalize as well,[194] and made partnership agreements with football leagues in Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.[195] The league first held a special draft in 2019 for Mexican born players, and another one for European players.,[196] and hold a special global scouting combine and Global Draft for players from Europe, Mexico, and Japan since 2021.[197] Today, each CFL team includes two designated global-player roster spots for players from outside the U.S. and Canada.[198]

Another American league, the Gridiron Developmental Football League, has partnership agreements for player development with two international leagues: the Elite Football League of India[199] and the Federación Deportiva Nacional de Fútbol Americano de Chile [es] (FDNFA).[200]

European League of Football

[edit]
Main article: European League of Football

In March 2021, a new league, the European League of Football, announced it had reached an agreement with the NFL to be able to use team names from the days of NFL Europe.[201][202] The league is a professional American football league,[203] and consists of seventeen teams located in nine countries: Germany, Poland, Spain, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, Hungary, Czech Republic and France. There are plans to expand to twenty-four teams by 2025. KaVontae Turpin was the first ELF alum who played in the NFL, while Adedayo Odeleye and Marcel Dabo signed as practice squad players through the league's IPPP.

Australian Football League

[edit]
Main article: Australians in American football

American football uses significantly different rules than Australian rules football played in the Australian Football League (AFL).[204] However, the punting specialist position requires similar skills under both rule sets.[205][206] The most successful player to ever make the transition from the AFL to the NFL is Darren Bennett, who was selected to the NFL 1990s All-Decade Team. Because salaries are usually up to five times higher in the U.S.,[204] a high number of players try their luck in the American game. In the last decade, the NFL has placed full-time development officers in Australia, and there is a full-time punting academy in the Australian continent called Prokick Australia.[207] – which is aimed at training and assessing talented punters from the country for positions in major U.S. colleges and the NFL.

Although the vast majority of Australian players in the NFL are punters, there are a few exceptions. The most famous is offensive tackle Jordan Mailata, who played Rugby league and was drafted in 2018 without college experience.[208] Another example is Joel Wilkinson, who signed with the Arizona Cardinals as a cornerback. Defensive end Adam Gotsis is probably the most successful non-punter Australian. He played at Georgia Tech in college and was drafted in the second round of the 2016 NFL draft by the Denver Broncos. Other notable players are Jarryd Hayne and Jesse Williams.

Current and planned Minor leagues

[edit]

Current leagues

[edit]

High-level

[edit]

Low-level

[edit]

Planned leagues

[edit]

High-level

[edit]

Mid-level

[edit]

Low-level

[edit]

Developmental

[edit]

Defunct Minor leagues

[edit]

High-level

[edit]

Source[98][30][46][225]

Originally South Atlantic Football Association
Became American Professional Football Association in 1938, American Football League in 1939
Supplemented the Professional Football League of America in 1968 and the Texas Football League in 1969.

Mid-level

[edit]

Low-level

[edit]

Source[98][30][46][225]

Renamed Interstate Football League in 1933
Originally the New Jersey Football Circuit (1934)
Outgrowth of the Tri-States Football League (1934)
Outgrowth of the Bi-States Football League (1949–1959) and Tri-States Football League (1960–1961)
Merger between the Dixie Football League[237] (1961–1962) and Florida Football League (1962–1963)
Renamed North Atlantic Football League in 1967
Supplemented the Southern Football League in 1966
Renamed Western Football League for the 1976 season

Developmental

[edit]

* Official NFL / AFL minor league.
‡ Unofficial NFL minor league, that featured NFL farm team(s).
𝐟 Folded without playing.

Notes

  1. ^ Pottsville Maroons moved to the NFL.
  2. ^ Informal association of teams; Portsmouth Spartans would later move to the NFL.
  3. ^ American Association suspended operations for duration of U.S. involvement in World War II; in 1946 the AA was renamed American Football League.
  4. ^ Suspended operations in 1942 for duration of U.S. involvement in World War II; Some teams played few games at the newly formed (and somewhat informal) Virginia Football League in 1942 before going to full hiatus.
  5. ^ Merged with PCPFL in 1945.
  6. ^ The league was in hiatus and re-branded as the NFL Europe League in 1995.
  7. ^ Merged with IFF in 1999, but both leagues folded without playing.
  8. ^ Two separate attempts, with different managements.
  9. ^ Merged with the USFL to form the UFL in 2024
  10. ^ Merged with the XFL to form the UFL in 2024
  11. ^ Reformatted as the developmental The Spring League.
  12. ^ Two separate attempts, with same management.
  13. ^ Informal association of teams.
  14. ^ Informal association of teams.
  15. ^ Two separate attempts, with same management.
  16. ^ Informal association of teams; the Toledo Tornadoes and Duquesne Ironmen would later move to the UFL and the ACFL (respectively).
  17. ^ Merged with CoFL in 1969.
  18. ^ Started in 1969 as a Midwestern circuit with loose association between the teams.
  19. ^ Reformatted to a scouting event called HUB Football in 2020.
  20. ^ Reformatted as the high-level United States Football League.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "The AAF Failed Because All Minor League Football Does". The Ringer. April 4, 2019.
  2. ^ a b "FOOTBALL PACT ENDED; Bell Reveals That N.F.L. and American Loop Have Parted". New York Times. February 10, 1948.
  3. ^ Surdam, David George. The Big Leagues Go to Washington: Congress and Sports Antitrust, 1951–1989, p. 95. The Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois, 2015. ISBN 9780252039140. "At January 1948 meeting, Bell stated that, "the NFL agreement with minor league affiliates meant very little to the NFL...he would agree to any request for cancellation of our agreement with our minor league affiliates."
  4. ^ "NFL Europa failed to produce players, profits". ESPN. June 29, 2007.
  5. ^ "Future promising for growing Mexican LFA league". 27 February 2020.
  6. ^ "CFL holds combine in Mexico City in effort to grow football worldwide".
  7. ^ "What is the agreement between the NFL and XFL?". AS.com [en]. February 17, 2023.
  8. ^ a b Gill, Bob (November 1, 1989). "All for One… The Minor Leagues' "Big Three" Make History in 1946" (PDF). The Coffin Corner.
  9. ^ Gill, Bob (December 1, 1990). "Nothing minor about it: The American Association/AFL of 1936–50" (PDF). The Coffin Corner.
  10. ^ "3 Top Minor Football Leagues In Alliance to Combat 'Jumping'; Pacific Coast, American and Dixie Circuits to Ask N.F.L. to Join – Plan Protection of Clubs' Territorial Rights" – New York Times, 24 March 1946
  11. ^ "10 years after NFL Europe's demise, alumni remember league fondly". ESPN. June 23, 2017.
  12. ^ "UFL: A major challenge to stay minor". ESPN. April 27, 2009.
  13. ^ a b c d e "Professional Sports Antitrust Bill (1965): Hearings Before the Subcommittee". Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1965. February 24, 1965.
  14. ^ "To Avoid AAF's Fate, XFL Must Have a Better TV Deal". InsideHook.com.
  15. ^ "NFL needs a developmental league and rebooting the XFL is the perfect fit to improve league diversity, depth". CBSSports.com. 27 May 2020.
  16. ^ a b Russo, Ralph D. (August 10, 2019). "NFL at 100: How college football became the pipeline to NFL". AP. Retrieved August 10, 2019.
  17. ^ "The real reason college football players don't get paid". CNBC. August 23, 2019.
  18. ^ Kacsmar, Scott. "Where Does NFL Talent Come From?". Bleacher Report.
  19. ^ Jozsa, Frank P. (November 28, 2017). Sports Capitalism: The Foreign Business of American Professional Leagues. Routledge. ISBN 9781351148627 – via Google Books.
  20. ^ a b Chiari, Mike (November 27, 2019). "Arena Football League Files for Bankruptcy, Will Cease Operations". Bleacher Report.
  21. ^ Phillips, Gary. "Arena Football League Closes Shop After 30-Plus Years". Forbes.
  22. ^ Writes, Tobi. "Is The UFL "The Mirror Of Erised" For Frustrated Pro Football Fans?". Bleacher Report.
  23. ^ Clayton, John (December 23, 2016). "Spring league kicking off 4-team, 3-week development plan in April". ABC News. Retrieved August 30, 2017.
  24. ^ Seifert, Kevin (October 8, 2014). "Inside slant: FXFL set to debut, ready or not". ESPN.com. ESPN. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
  25. ^ "AAF co-founder Bill Polian suggests startup could be legitimate minor league for NFL". sports.yahoo.com. 7 March 2019.
  26. ^ Smith, Michael David (April 3, 2019). "AAF executives thought there was a 2–3 year plan to be an NFL minor league".
  27. ^ "Pro Football Players Reaping The Benefits Of The XFL And USFL". xflnewshub.com. February 12, 2023.
  28. ^ a b c d Carroll, Bob (1989). "The Birth of Pro Football" (PDF). Professional Football Researchers Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2013.
  29. ^ "Phillies vs. Athletics, NFL of 1902". Ghosts of the Gridiron. Retrieved August 8, 2012.
  30. ^ a b c d Bob Gill, with Tod Maher. Outsiders: Minor League And Independent Football, 1923–1950, p. vii. St. Johann Press, 2006. ISBN 187828245X
  31. ^ "Not Only the Ball Was Brown" (PDF).
  32. ^ "Pro Football Spreads South" (PDF).
  33. ^ "A History of the Dixie League" (PDF).
  34. ^ "Nothing minor about it" (PDF).
  35. ^ "The Minor Leagues' "Big Three" Make History in 1946" (PDF).
  36. ^ "How the NFL took over America in 100 years". 14 August 2019.
  37. ^ "The Bulldogs: L.A. Hits the Big Time" (PDF).
  38. ^ "PCPFL: 1940–45" (PDF).
  39. ^ "The End of the PCPFL" (PDF).
  40. ^ "Other Minor Leagues" (PDF).
  41. ^ "Joseph Rosentover Is Dead; Led Minor Football Leagues". NY Times. 21 December 1973.
  42. ^ William J. Ryczek. Connecticut Gridiron: Football Minor Leaguers of the 1960s and 1970s, p.56, McFarland & Company, 2014. ISBN 0786478330
  43. ^ "Wakefield Redskins, 1961". Archived from the original on 2020-02-28. Retrieved 2021-04-09.
  44. ^ "Six Of Nation's Minor Pro Grid Loops Combine". The Indianapolis Star. April 27, 1964. Retrieved April 3, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
  45. ^ Papara, Cam (November 22, 1964). "Raiders Whip Elmhurst 7–0". The Racine Journal-Times Sunday Bulletin. Retrieved April 3, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
  46. ^ a b c d Bob Gill, with Tod Maher. Outsiders II: Minor League And Independent Football, 1951–1985, St. Johann Press, 2010. ISBN 1878282654
  47. ^ "Celebrating the Continental Football League". 29 June 2011.
  48. ^ "TFL Aligns With Huge Continental". The Odessa American. Associated Press. January 26, 1969.
  49. ^ "This Spring Isn't Very Green", by Tex Maule, Sports Illustrated, May 10, 1971, pp. 65–67
  50. ^ "From USFL to AAF: A History of Spring Football". 25 January 2019.
  51. ^ a b Bob Gill, with Steve Brainerd and Tod Maher, Minor League Football, 1960–85 (McFarland and Co., 2002), pp. 84, 99–100
  52. ^ "Joe Klecko Works for the Jets"[permanent dead link], The Miami News, November 22, 1978, p3C
  53. ^ "Long Island Chiefs Football Records".
  54. ^ "Hartford Gets Grid Franchise", Reading Eagle – May 31, 1972, p58 The Chiefs played an exhibition game against the New York Jets rookies on July 29, 1972, losing 29–3, "Packer Excels at Quarterback As Jets Top L.I. Chiefs, 29–3", New York Times, July 30, 1972, pS-3; "Rookie QB Fires Jets", Pittsburgh Press, July 30, 1972, pD-8
  55. ^ "Ocala Star-Banner – Google News Archive Search". news.google.com.
  56. ^ "The Tuscaloosa News – Google News Archive Search". news.google.com.
  57. ^ "Sports World Specials; Scout Team". The New York Times. January 19, 1981.
  58. ^ "History Of The AFA".
  59. ^ Dufresne, Chris (21 May 1991). "Europe Takes to WLAF, but Will It Catch on Here?". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
  60. ^ Stellino, Vito (7 April 1991). "WLAF attendance surpassing early hopes in Europe and Canada". Baltimore Sun. Archived from the original on 28 May 2014. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
  61. ^ Dufresne, Chris (21 May 1991). "Europe Takes to WLAF, but Will It Catch on Here? [Page 2]". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 26 May 2014.
  62. ^ "NFL Europa to cease operations". NFL.com. 29 June 2007. Archived from the original on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 2007-06-29.
  63. ^ "Ranking QBs who benefited from NFL Europe". ESPN.com. June 23, 2017.
  64. ^ Rubin, Adam (May 7, 1997). "Pro league considers football in Shreveport". The Times. Shreveport, Louisiana. p. 21. Retrieved January 23, 2019 – via newspapers.com.
  65. ^ "Regional Football League pushes start back to '99". The Times. Shreveport, Louisiana. December 2, 1997. p. 20. Retrieved January 23, 2019 – via newspapers.com.
  66. ^ McCloskey, John (April 30, 1999). "Knights, league slice salaries to survive". The Times. Shreveport, Louisiana. p. 1. Retrieved January 23, 2019 – via newspapers.com.
  67. ^ Rubin, Adam (May 7, 1997). "League considers Shreveport team (cont'd)". The Times. Shreveport, Louisiana. p. 26. Retrieved January 23, 2019 – via newspapers.com.
  68. ^ "Admirals' season cut". Pensacola News Journal. Pensacola, Florida. May 27, 1999. p. 41. Retrieved January 23, 2019 – via newspapers.com.
  69. ^ An IFF-y proposition. Associated Press. 11 June 1999.
  70. ^ "SFL Stops Play, Gores Matadors". San Antonio Express News.
  71. ^ TIME WARNER AND NBC TO FORM NEW PRO LEAGUE Archived 2012-08-26 at the Wayback Machine. SportsBusiness.com.
  72. ^ "Why the XFL failed". sportinglife360.com. Archived from the original on 2014-02-02.
  73. ^ "XFL exterminated". Forbes. Top of the News. 2001-05-11. Retrieved December 17, 2015.
  74. ^ Klosterman, Chuck (2007-06-05). "AAFL planning spring fling in 2008". ESPN Internet Ventures. Retrieved 2009-11-09.
  75. ^ "New football league hopes to start on time". Ledger-Enquirer.com. Archived from the original on January 24, 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-15.
  76. ^ "USFL launches revamped look as league moves closer to inaugural season". Archived from the original on February 3, 2013.
  77. ^ "Don't Call It a Comeback: USFL's Return Could Cause Trouble for the NFL". Bleacher Report.
  78. ^ Young, Eric. "New pro football league forms. When is kickoff? In two years". San Francisco Business Times. Retrieved August 19, 2013.
  79. ^ Hibdon, Glenn (July 19, 2008). "Oklahoma Thunder 101". Tulsa World. Retrieved July 29, 2010.
  80. ^ "Stars Football League to Debut on June 30". The Las Vegas Informer. Archived from the original on 2012-03-26. Retrieved 2023-08-01.
  81. ^ Klayman, Ben (2008-05-15). "NFL rival to reveal West Coast football teams soon". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2008-12-11. Retrieved 2009-02-16.
  82. ^ "UFL eyeing overseas expansion in year two or three". Reuters.
  83. ^ "UFL calls off its season". Pro Football Talk. 20 October 2012.
  84. ^ Grossi, Tony (May 23, 2014). "Coming soon: A professional developmental football league that just may succeed". ESPNCleveland.com. ESPN. Archived from the original on October 10, 2014. Retrieved October 20, 2014.
  85. ^ Tringali, Rob. "Camp Last Chance". ESPN.
  86. ^ Kaplan, Daniel. "NHL owner Tom Dundon sued for at least $184 million over football league's demise". The New York Times.
  87. ^ Kerr, Jeff (August 2, 2020). "Dwayne 'The Rock' Johnson buys XFL for $15 million with partner Redbird Capital, per report". CBSSports.com. Retrieved August 2, 2020.
  88. ^ ESPN staff (2023-02-19). "XFL Week 1: Highlights, game recaps, top players, news". ESPN.
  89. ^ a b "A guide to all the new non-NFL football leagues". CBSsports.com.
  90. ^ "APL Teams". Archived from the original on 2020-02-01.
  91. ^ "Why NFL's player development model could be transformed by one persistent longtime agent". 31 July 2020.
  92. ^ "After decades dormant, USFL to relaunch in '22". ESPN.com. 2021-06-03. Retrieved 3 June 2021.
  93. ^ "USFL proposes hosting relaunch season in Birmingham in Spring 2022". AL.com. 2021-10-12. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  94. ^ "Roy S. Johnson: USFL football VP knows 'first season is everything'". AL.com. 2022-02-18. Retrieved 2022-02-18.
  95. ^ Barnett, Zach (2021-06-03). "USFL set to return in 2022". Footballscoop. Retrieved 2022-06-08.
  96. ^ a b "XFL, USFL announce merger to form the United Football League". Washington Post. December 31, 2023. Retrieved December 31, 2023.
  97. ^ Richard Giulianotti. Routledge Handbook of the Sociology of Sport, p. 135 Routledge, 2015. ISBN 0415829739
  98. ^ a b c Gill, Bob (November 1, 1989). "Other Minor Leagues" (PDF). The Coffin Corner.
  99. ^ "THE COFFIN CORNER: Vol. 4, No. 7 (1982)" (PDF). Professional Football Researchers Association. 1982.
  100. ^ "FOOTBALL; XFL, a Reality Series With Sports Thrown In". The New York Times. February 1, 2001.
  101. ^ "Players in new league to get 3-year, $250K contracts". ESPN. July 12, 2018.
  102. ^ "Inside the short, unhappy life of the Alliance of American Football". ESPN. June 13, 2019.
  103. ^ "The Curious Rise and Spectacular Crash of the Alliance of American Football". Sports Illustrated. May 6, 2019.
  104. ^ "The quick, messy death of the AAF, Silicon Valley's complement to the NFL". The Guardian. April 3, 2019.
  105. ^ "Inside Slant: Developmental league on tap". ESPN. August 22, 2014.
  106. ^ "Plugged In: Brian Woods, FXFL". Sports Business Daily. September 29, 2014.
  107. ^ "FXFL Brings Pro Football Back to Brooklyn". The Wall Street Journal. October 7, 2014.
  108. ^ a b c d e Earlywine, Aaron (February 9, 2017). "A closer look at football developmental leagues". SI.com. Retrieved December 12, 2018.
  109. ^ "Is Spring League an NFL springboard? It's at least a shot". ESPN. May 6, 2017.
  110. ^ "In the Shadow of Dak Prescott: Welcome to the NFL's League of Last Chances". Bleacher Report. May 10, 2017.
  111. ^ a b "Your Call Football Develops Pro Talent For NFL & CFL" (Press release). Associated Press / BusinessWire. June 5, 2018.
  112. ^ Lindskog, Chad. "Indiana Firebirds won't be Evansville's new pro sports team after all". Evansville Courier & Press.
  113. ^ "Dallas Cowboys awarded Arena Football team". www.oursportscentral.com. OurSports Central. August 19, 2000. Retrieved July 19, 2017.
  114. ^ "Arena Football's Influence on the NFL Is Growing". 22 May 2019.
  115. ^ "New York Dragons join AFL". AFL Press Release. November 1, 2000.
  116. ^ "NFL-AFL Teleconference, 2/9/99".
  117. ^ "PRO FOOTBALL: NOTEBOOK; N.F.L. Ownership Delays Decisions". The New York Times. March 21, 2002.
  118. ^ "The XFL and IFL Announce Player Personnel Partnership".
  119. ^ "XFL and Indoor Football League Looking to Potentially Team Up". XFL Newsroom. 6 October 2022. Retrieved 2022-10-06.
  120. ^ "AFL closure won't affect Pirates, af2".
  121. ^ Johnson, Dan (September 9, 2009). "Barnstormers hope to land in top tier of redefined league". Des Moines Register. Retrieved September 29, 2009. [dead link]
  122. ^ Gleeson, Scott. "Arena Football League files for bankruptcy, ceases all operations". USA TODAY.
  123. ^ "Swann: A league of their own". ESPN.com. December 5, 2007.
  124. ^ a b "At $75 a game, indoor football isn't about the money". AP. May 29, 2015.
  125. ^ a b Zimmer, Matt (August 30, 2017). "Sioux Falls Storm leaving IFL for Champions Indoor Football". Argus Leader.
  126. ^ "As arena football struggles to keep franchises, Portland hopes to be Hail Mary". Portland Press Herald. April 1, 2018.
  127. ^ "Kenny McEntyre revives Orlando Predators in National Arena League". Orlando Sentinel. January 16, 2019.
  128. ^ "Indoor football: Massachusetts Pirates continue to focus forward".
  129. ^ "Orlando Predators prepare Arena Football League return with concerts and more". Orlando Business Journal. September 27, 2023. Retrieved 2023-09-28.
  130. ^ "NFL with minor league football experience" (PDF).
  131. ^ a b Ravo, Nick (September 29, 1989). "Football's Minors Try To Survive First Year". The New York Times.
  132. ^ "Starting at the Bottom" (PDF).
  133. ^ "Keeping Pittsburgh Colts afloat no minor job". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.
  134. ^ Cramer, James (November 12, 1977). "Becoming a Pro". The New Republic.
  135. ^ "Regional combine gives three NFL long shots their big chance". NFL.com.
  136. ^ "10 Tips for Semi-pro Football Tryouts". 21 July 2011.
  137. ^ "A Look At the Semi-Pro Leagues Providing the Strike Players". AP NEWS.
  138. ^ "REPLACEMENT LEGENDS OF THE FALL" (PDF).
  139. ^ "Year of the Scab | Football Outsiders". www.footballoutsiders.com.
  140. ^ "Pro Football Journal: Johnny Unitas Week: Pittsburgh Steelers and Bloomfield Rams (1955)". May 3, 2016.
  141. ^ Cowser, Bob (December 2007). Dream Season: A Professor Joins America's Oldest Semi-Pro Football Team. Open Road + Grove/Atlantic. ISBN 9781555846268.
  142. ^ a b Davis, Craig (August 13, 1989). "WHAT'S MLFS? A MINOR LEAGUE OF MAJOR DREAMS".
  143. ^ a b c Most, Doug (June 23, 1989). "MINOR LEAGUE FOOTBALL SET STORM BASED IN FAIRFAX".
  144. ^ "Minor League Football". Oklahoman.com. February 18, 1990.
  145. ^ "Lou Saban Leaves Macon's Heat Wave". The Albany Herald. Macon, Ga. Associated Press. August 8, 1990. p. 4D. Retrieved August 11, 2012.
  146. ^ "Minor League Football System (1989–1990)". www.gnfafootball.org.
  147. ^ "American Football Association".
  148. ^ "Semi-Pro Football Hall of Fame".
  149. ^ "AFA Hall of Fame: The First Thirteen Years" (PDF).
  150. ^ "Semi-Pro Football Hall of Fame: The First 100 (or so) Members, 1981–1989" (PDF).
  151. ^ "USA Bowl Championship Series".
  152. ^ "United States Federation of American Football". Archived from the original on 2021-03-05. Retrieved 2020-06-24.
  153. ^ "AAA AND AA LEAGUE CRITERIA UPDATED". mlfn.org. Archived from the original on 2020-06-26. Retrieved 2020-06-24.
  154. ^ "Football". 3 April 2023.
  155. ^ "National Team". Football Canada.
  156. ^ "Amateur to Professional Developmental Football League".
  157. ^ Jones, Elane. "P-Town Wreckaz switch leagues, tapped to host Kick-off Classic". Daily Mountain Eagle. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018. Retrieved December 12, 2018.
  158. ^ "Amateur to Professional Developmental Football League – Champions". semiprofootball.org.
  159. ^ "East Coast Football League".
  160. ^ "East Coast Football League (ECFL) Joins American Football Association".
  161. ^ "Eastern Football League".
  162. ^ "SEMIPRO FOOTBALL: Taunton Gladiators win third consecutive Eastern Football League crown". Archived from the original on 2021-10-27. Retrieved 2020-09-11.
  163. ^ "Semi-pro football is back".
  164. ^ "Eastern Football League CHAMPIONS".
  165. ^ "Mason-Dixon Football League".
  166. ^ Aparicio, Nestor (9 August 1991). "In Mason Dixon, local players Bear souls for another NFL shot". baltimoresun.com.
  167. ^ Buchalter, Bill (13 February 1994). "FORMER UCF PUNTER SALERNO EARNS CHANCE AT PRO DREAM". OrlandoSentinel.com.
  168. ^ "Mason-Dixon Football League – Champions". semiprofootball.org.
  169. ^ "MidStates Football League". Archived from the original on 2016-12-02. Retrieved 2020-06-24.
  170. ^ "A quarterback the Bears could use". Daily Herald. Archived from the original on 2020-06-26.
  171. ^ Feldmann, Mark (October 2019). "Racine Raiders: National playoff path set for undefeated squad". Journal Times.
  172. ^ "Mid-States Football League – Champions". semiprofootball.org.
  173. ^ "Minor Football League".
  174. ^ "Vick welcome to play in football minor league". ESPN.com. July 8, 2009.
  175. ^ "Minor League Football gears up in MoCo". Archived from the original on 2020-04-12. Retrieved 2020-06-24.
  176. ^ "MFL and African Union Mission Announce Groundbreaking International Developmental Football by Minor Football League". 1888pressrelease.com.
  177. ^ "Pacific Coast Football League".
  178. ^ "Golden State Giants football is back: an interview wit' Golden State Giants President Tirrell Muhammad". February 4, 2014.
  179. ^ "East Bay Guardians prep for 2017 semi-pro football season". Oakland North. 15 March 2017.
  180. ^ "Pacific Coast Football League – Champions". semiprofootball.org.
  181. ^ "Pacific Northwest Football League".
  182. ^ "Pacific Northwest Football League".[permanent dead link]
  183. ^ "Rocky Mountain Football League".
  184. ^ "Rocky Mountain Football League".[permanent dead link]
  185. ^ "Rocky Mountain Football League champs".
  186. ^ "2015 CMFL Agreement" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-10-06.
  187. ^ Rothman, Seymour (1989-07-29). "Japan to get second look at American pro football". Toledo Blade. Retrieved 2013-10-20.
  188. ^ Viruega, Pablo (2008-10-01). "Mexico's long love affair with football, American-style". ESPN. Retrieved 2013-10-20.
  189. ^ "From youth to pro, American football has taken root in Mexico". 17 November 2016.
  190. ^ Reynolds, Neil (2012-09-26). "Football in the UK: Hall of Famers at Wembley". Pro Football Hall of Fame. Retrieved 2013-10-20.
  191. ^ "American football not just American". American Football International. August 23, 2019.
  192. ^ "Four International Players Added to Practice Squads for 2017 Season". NFL.com. 25 May 2017.
  193. ^ "What exactly is the NFL International Pathway Player program?". americanfootballinternational.com. 17 January 2022.
  194. ^ "Randy's Word: Talking CFL 2.0". October 3, 2018.
  195. ^ Yokota, Takashi; Ikezawa, Hiroshi (December 28, 2019). "New CFL-X League alliance spans the Pacific". The Japan Times.
  196. ^ "Full results from the first ever European draft". April 11, 2019.
  197. ^ "CFL to hold global player combines in Europe, Mexico and Japan". November 5, 2019.
  198. ^ "CFL Combine planned for Paris, France in 2020". press.cfl.ca. October 4, 2019. Retrieved November 4, 2019.
  199. ^ Football, Oklahoma Thunder (21 May 2014). "Oklahoma Thunder Football agrees to foreign exchange player program". Tulsa World.
  200. ^ "Chile Players to Compete in H.Y.P.E. BOWL". 8 August 2018.
  201. ^ "Football-Comeback des Jahres: Hamburg Sea Devils und Frankfurt Galaxy starten in der ELF". ran.de (in German). 9 March 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2021.[permanent dead link]
  202. ^ "Shake-up to inaugural ELF line-up announced; 3 new franchises enter, 2 exit". americanfootballinternational.com. 22 March 2021. Retrieved 22 March 2021.
  203. ^ "European League Updates". Archived from the original on 2021-07-06. Retrieved 2022-11-29.
  204. ^ a b Lukas, Mike (January 28, 2020). "NFL vs AFL: Revenue, Salaries, Viewership and Attendance". WSN.
  205. ^ Niesen, Joan (13 August 2018). "Mitch Wishnowsky and Utah Are Setting the Pace in a New Phase of the Australian Punter Pipeline". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
  206. ^ Wagoner, Nick (24 May 2019). "How the NFL's Australian punter revolution made its way to San Francisco". ESPN.com. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
  207. ^ "Prokick Australia". www.prokickaustralia.com.
  208. ^ Knoblauch, Austin (28 April 2018). "Eagles draft Australian rugby player Jordan Mailata". NFL.com.
  209. ^ "Liga de Fútbol Americano Profesional".
  210. ^ "Fledgling pro league trying to gain foothold with Mexico's NFL fans". 14 April 2017.
  211. ^ "A comeback for XFL, but can it win?". 29 January 2018.
  212. ^ "SLAF Wants To Bring NFL-Level Competition To The Spring And That's Not Even Their Craziest Idea". Fox Sports. June 30, 2017.
  213. ^ Schwartz, Peter (September 26, 2016). "Schwartz: Spring League Of American Football Set To Debut In 2018". CBS New York. CBS. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
  214. ^ Durkee, Travis (December 6, 2018). "Ricky Williams, collection of former NFL stars launching Freedom Football League". Sporting News. Perform Media. Omnisport. Archived from the original on December 9, 2018. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
  215. ^ "Anuncian liga de futbol americano entre México y Estados Unidos". espn.com.ar (in Spanish). 15 May 2023.
  216. ^ "Announcement of new Footbal League with teams from the United States and Mexico". Marca.com. 15 May 2023.
  217. ^ "Daytona Becomes 1st City In New Spring Football League". WNDB – News Daytona Beach. 9 October 2018.
  218. ^ "American Patriot League". aplfootball.us.
  219. ^ "MLF official website".
  220. ^ "Semi-Pro Major League Football Team Looking to Launch in 2022". 18 September 2021.
  221. ^ "New professional football league launching this fall, includes team from Sacramento". 4 August 2022.
  222. ^ "New pro football league includes Sacramento among list of debut cities for fall games".
  223. ^ "Sacramento's new pro football team delayed as league pushes back its debut". CBS News. 3 October 2022.
  224. ^ "World Professional Football Association". wpfa.us.
  225. ^ a b R.D. Griffith. To the NFL: You Sure Started Somethin', Dorrance Publishing, 2012. ISBN 1434916812
  226. ^ "THE BEST LITTLE QUARTERBACK YOU NEVER HEARD OF?" (PDF).
  227. ^ "An Overdose Of Problems". Archived from the original on 2012-10-26.
  228. ^ "New pro football league forming".
  229. ^ "The New USFL – For the Love of the Game!". December 6, 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-12-06.
  230. ^ "The USFL is Back". March 19, 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-03-19.
  231. ^ "How much do XFL players get paid? Breaking down salary structure for new league". www.sportingnews.com. 12 August 2021.
  232. ^ "Details on USFL Player Contracts & Pay Reportedly Leak". Pro Football Newsroom. 2022-02-04. Retrieved 2022-02-05.
  233. ^ "California Dreamin': West Coast Pros in the 1930s" (PDF).
  234. ^ "2 Dayton Teams In New Pro Football Circuit". Dayton Daily News. September 21, 1941. Retrieved May 5, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
  235. ^ Ross, Charles K. (May 2001). Outside the Lines: African Americans and the Integration of the National Football League. NYU Press. ISBN 9780814774960.
  236. ^ "Friday Flashback: Southern Football League". That Dude Writer. September 28, 2018. Archived from the original on 2020-06-26.
  237. ^ "Birmingham Vulcans Team and League History".
  238. ^ William J. Ryczek. Connecticut Gridiron: Football Minor Leaguers of the 1960s and 1970s, p.113, McFarland & Company, 2014. ISBN 0786478330
  239. ^ "New Pro Football League Ready to Operate in 1965". The New York Times. December 7, 1964 – via NYTimes.com.
  240. ^ "Will Birmingham play in the United Football Teams of America?".
  241. ^ "TPSFL Official Site". Archived from the original on 2018-01-05.
  242. ^ "Trinity Professional Spring Football League 2018". 18 January 2020.
  243. ^ Clayton, John (December 23, 2016). "Spring league kicking off 4-team, 3-week development plan in April". ESPN. Retrieved August 30, 2017.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minor_league_football_(gridiron)&oldid=1250219832"