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{{Short description|Alcoholic drink made from fruit}}
{{about|the drink}}
{{use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Infobox beverage
| name         = Wine
| image        = Red and white wine 12-2015.jpg
| caption      = [[Wine glass|Glasses]] of [[red wine|red]] and [[white wine]]
| type         = Alcoholic beverage
| abv          = 5–16%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.masterclass.com/articles/learn-about-alcohol-content-in-wine-highest-to-lowest-abv-wines|title=Learn About Alcohol Content in Wine: Highest to Lowest ABV Wines – 2023 – MasterClass|access-date=12 April 2023|archive-date=12 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412191442/https://www.masterclass.com/articles/learn-about-alcohol-content-in-wine-highest-to-lowest-abv-wines|url-status=live}}</ref>
| ingredients  = Varies; see [[Winemaking]]
| variants     = {{Flatlist|
* [[Red wine|Red]]
* [[White wine|White]]
* [[Rosé]]
* [[Skin-contact wine|Orange]]
* [[Sparkling wine|Sparkling]]
* [[Dessert wine|Dessert]]
}}
| related      =
| website      =
}}

'''Wine''' is an [[alcoholic drink]] made from [[Fermentation in winemaking|fermented]] [[fruit]]. [[Yeast in winemaking|Yeast]] consumes the [[sugar]] in the fruit and converts it to [[ethanol]] and [[carbon dioxide]], releasing [[heat]] in the process. Wine is most often made from [[grape]]s, and the term "wine" generally refers to grape wine when used without any qualification. Even so, wine can be made [[fruit wine|from a variety of fruit crops]], including [[plum]], [[cherry]], [[pomegranate]], [[blueberry]], [[Ribes|currant]], and [[Sambucus|elderberry]]. 

Different varieties of grapes and [[Strain (biology)|strains]] of yeasts are major factors in different styles of wine. These differences result from the complex interactions between the [[Biochemistry|biochemical]] development of the grape, the reactions involved in [[fermentation]], the grape's growing environment ([[terroir]]), and the wine production process. Many countries enact legal [[appellation]]s intended to define styles and qualities of wine. These typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. 

Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest evidence of wine is from the present-day [[Georgian wine|Georgia]] (6000 BCE), [[Persian wine|Persia]] (5000 BCE), [[Italian wine|Italy]], and [[Armenian wine|Armenia]] (4000 BCE). [[New World wine]] has some connection to alcoholic beverages made by the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] but is mainly connected to later Spanish traditions in [[New Spain]].<ref name="[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] made 'world's oldest wine'">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41977709|title=Georgia made 'world's oldest wine'|publisher=BBC News|date=13 November 2017|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-date=14 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114041222/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41977709|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="archeologyMethodTheory2014322" /> Later, as [[Old World wine]] further developed viticulture techniques, Europe would encompass three of the largest [[List of wine-producing regions|wine-producing regions]]. Based on statistics gathered by the [[International Organisation of Vine and Wine]] in 2022 the top five wine producing countries are Italy, France, Spain, the United States, and Australia.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rojo Moro |first1=Alberto |title=Ranked: World's Biggest Wine Producers by Country |url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/cp/biggest-wine-producers-by-country/ |website=Visual Capitalist |access-date=9 March 2024}}</ref> 

Wine has long played an important role in religion. [[Red wine]] was associated with [[blood]] by the [[ancient Egyptians]],<ref>{{cite book |author=Plutarch |url=https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL306/1936/volume.xml |title=Moralia |date=1936 |publisher=Harvard University Press |edition=Loeb Classical Library |volume=V |location=Cambridge |pages=3–6 |translator-last=Babbitt |translator-first=Frank Cole |chapter=Isis and Osiris |isbn=978-0-674-99337-2 |access-date=7 May 2024 |chapter-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Isis_and_Osiris*/A.html |via=Loeb Classical Library and University of Chicago Press}}</ref> and was used by both the [[Ancient Greek religion|Greek]] [[cult of Dionysus]] and the [[ancient Romans|Romans]] in their [[Bacchanalia]]; [[Judaism]] also incorporates it in the [[Kiddush]], and [[Christianity]] in the [[Eucharist]]. [[Egyptian wine|Egyptian]], [[Greek wine|Greek]], [[Roman wine|Roman]], and [[Israeli wine|Israeli]] wine cultures are still connected to these ancient roots. Similarly the largest wine regions in Italy, [[Spanish wine|Spain]], and [[French wine|France]] have heritages in connection to [[sacramental wine]], likewise, viticulture traditions in the [[Southwestern United States]] started within New Spain as [[Catholic]] friars and monks first produced wines in [[New Mexico wine|New Mexico]] and [[California wine|California]].<ref name="Congressional Serial Set 1903 p. 263">{{cite book | title=Congressional Serial Set | publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office | year=1903 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KAQdAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA263 | access-date=6 May 2020 | page=263}}</ref><ref name="Adams 2019">{{cite web | last=Adams | first=Fiona | title=New Mexico's Deep Winemaking History | website=Wine Enthusiast | date=29 April 2019 | url=https://www.winemag.com/2019/04/29/new-mexicos-deep-winemaking-history/ | access-date=6 May 2020 | archive-date=23 August 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823164804/https://www.winemag.com/2019/04/29/new-mexicos-deep-winemaking-history/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="California Vineyardists Association Associated California Fruit Industries 1980 p.">{{cite book | author=California Vineyardists Association | author2=Associated California Fruit Industries | title=Wines and Vines | publisher=Hiaring Company | issue=v. 61 | year=1980 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X00sAQAAMAAJ | access-date=6 May 2020 }}</ref>
{{TOC limit|3}}

== History ==
[[File:Georgian Kvevri.jpg|thumb|[[Kvevri|Georgian clay vessels]], historically used in wine making.]]
[[File:Areni-1 cave entrance.jpg|thumb|The [[Areni-1 winery|Areni-1 cave]] in [[Armenia]] is home to the world's oldest known winery.]]
{{Main|History of wine}}
The earliest known traces of wine are from [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] ({{circa|lk=no|6000}} BCE),<ref name="archeologyMethodTheory2014322">{{cite journal|last=Doce|first=Elisa Guerra|year=2004|title=The Origins of Inebriation: Archaeological Evidence of the Consumption of Fermented Beverages and Drugs in Prehistoric Eurasia|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-014-9205-z|journal=[[Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory]]|volume=22|issue=3| pages=751–782 | doi=10.1007/s10816-014-9205-z | s2cid=143750976 | issn = 1072-5369}}</ref><ref name="[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] made 'world's oldest wine'" /> [[Iran]] ([[Name of Iran|Persia]]) ({{circa|lk=no|5000}} BCE),<ref name="indie">{{cite news|url=http://www.penn.museum/blog/collection/125th-anniversary-object-of-the-day/7000-year-old-wine-jar-object-of-the-day-24/|title=7,000 Year-old Wine Jar|last=Ellsworth|first=Amy|date=18 July 2012|publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology]]|access-date=15 April 2015|archive-date=26 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120826123906/http://www.penn.museum/blog/collection/125th-anniversary-object-of-the-day/7000-year-old-wine-jar-object-of-the-day-24/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="archaeology96">{{cite journal|last=Berkowitz|first=Mark|year=1996|title=World's Earliest Wine|url=http://www.archaeology.org/9609/newsbriefs/wine.html|journal=[[Archaeology (magazine)|Archaeology]]|publisher=[[Archaeological Institute of America]]|volume=49|issue=5|access-date=17 November 2005|archive-date=5 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605195324/http://www.archaeology.org/9609/newsbriefs/wine.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Armenia]] ({{Circa|4100 BCE}}),<ref name="Earliest known winery">{{cite web |date=12 January 2011 |title=National Geographic: Earliest Known Winery Found in Armenian Cave |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110111-oldest-wine-press-making-winery-armenia-science-ucla/ |access-date=28 March 2011 |archive-date=3 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603205116/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/01/110111-oldest-wine-press-making-winery-armenia-science-ucla/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[Sicily]] ({{circa|lk=no|4000}} BCE).<ref name="SicilyGuardian">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/aug/30/traces-of-6000-year-old-wine-discovered-in-sicilian-cave|title=Traces of 6,000-year-old wine discovered in Sicilian cave|last=Tondo|first=Lorenzo|date=30 August 2017|work=The Guardian|access-date=12 September 2017|archive-date=14 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014043855/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/aug/30/traces-of-6000-year-old-wine-discovered-in-sicilian-cave|url-status=live}}</ref> Wine reached the [[Mediterranean Basin]] in the early [[Bronze Age]] and was consumed and celebrated by ancient civilizations like ancient [[ancient Greece and wine|Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome and wine|Rome]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harutyunyan |first1=Mkrtich |last2=Malfeito-Ferreira |first2=Manuel |title=The Rise of Wine among Ancient Civilizations across the Mediterranean Basin |journal=[[Heritage (journal)|Heritage]] |date=2022 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=788–812 |doi=10.3390/heritage5020043 |doi-access=free|hdl=10400.5/24195 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Throughout history, wine has been consumed for its [[Alcohol intoxication|intoxicating effects]].<ref name="BAC per Drink tables">{{Cite web|url=https://attorneydwi.com/b-a-c-per-drink/|title=B.A.C. Per Drink|date=6 October 2018|access-date=4 May 2020|archive-date=1 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200401193710/https://attorneydwi.com/b-a-c-per-drink/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Effects at Specific B.A.C. Levels">{{Cite web|url=http://www.brad21.org/effects_at_specific_bac.html|title=Effects at Specific B.A.C. Levels|access-date=1 April 2014|archive-date=7 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607212047/http://www.brad21.org/effects_at_specific_bac.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aicr.org/press/health-features/health-talk/2014/mar14/wine-serving-size.html|title=wine-serving-size|website=American Institute for Cancer Research|date=3 March 2014|access-date=2016-12-13|archive-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220111644/http://www.aicr.org/press/health-features/health-talk/2014/mar14/wine-serving-size.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The earliest archaeological and archaeobotanical evidence for grape wine and viniculture, dating to 6000–5800 BCE was found on the territory of modern [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].<ref>{{cite news |title='World's oldest wine' found in 8,000-year-old jars in Georgia |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41977709 |publisher=BBC News |date=13 November 2017 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-date=14 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114041222/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41977709 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McGovern |first1=Patrick |last2=Jalabadze |first2=Mindia |last3=Batiuk |first3=Stephen |last4=Callahan |first4=Michael P. |last5=Smith |first5=Karen E. |last6=Hall |first6=Gretchen R. |last7=Kvavadze |first7=Eliso |last8=Maghradze |first8=David |last9=Rusishvili |first9=Nana |last10=Bouby |first10=Laurent |last11=Failla |first11=Osvaldo |last12=Cola |first12=Gabriele |last13=Mariani |first13=Luigi |last14=Boaretto |first14=Elisabetta |last15=Bacilieri |first15=Roberto |last16=This |first16=Patrice |last17=Wales |first17=Nathan |last18=Lordkipanidze |first18=David |title=Early Neolithic wine of Georgia in the South Caucasus |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=28 November 2017 |volume=114 |issue=48 |pages=E10309–E10318 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1714728114|pmid=29133421 |pmc=5715782 |bibcode=2017PNAS..11410309M |display-authors=2|doi-access=free }}</ref> Both archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that the earliest production of wine outside of Georgia was relatively later, likely having taken place elsewhere in the [[Caucasus|Southern Caucasus]] (which encompasses [[Armenia]], Georgia and [[Azerbaijan]]), or the [[West Asia]]n region between [[Eastern Anatolia Region|Eastern Turkey]], and northern [[Iran]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-beer-archaeologist-17016372/?no-ist|title=The Beer Archaeologist|first=Abigail|last=Tucker|date=August 2011|work=Smithsonian Magazine|access-date=19 February 2022|archive-date=2 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202085143/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-beer-archaeologist-17016372/?no-ist|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.penn.museum/sites/biomoleculararchaeology/?page_id=82 |title=Grape Wine |last=McGovern |first=Patrick E. |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology |access-date=19 February 2022 |archive-date=6 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906045247/https://www.penn.museum/sites/biomoleculararchaeology/?page_id=82 |url-status=live }}</ref> The earliest known winery from 4100 BCE is the [[Areni-1 winery]] in [[Armenia]].<ref name="Earliest known winery" /><ref name="IOAUCLA">{{Cite web |title=Backdirt &#124; UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology |url=https://ioa.ucla.edu/content/backdirt |website=ioa.ucla.edu |access-date=4 May 2020 |archive-date=30 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130205739/https://ioa.ucla.edu/content/backdirt |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with [[rice]] to produce [[fermented drink]]s in ancient [[China]] in the early years of the seventh millennium BCE. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of [[Jiahu]], [[Henan]], contained traces of [[tartaric acid]] and other organic compounds commonly found in wine. However, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as [[Common hawthorn|hawthorn]], cannot be ruled out.<ref name="PNAS">{{cite journal | title=Fermented beverages of pre- and proto-historic China | publisher=The National Academy of Sciences | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | first=Patrick E. |last=McGovern| date=30 September 2003|display-authors=etal | doi=10.1073/pnas.0407921102 | volume=101 | issue=51 | pages=17593–17598 | pmid=15590771 | pmc=539767| bibcode=2004PNAS..10117593M | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/12/041219134133.htm | publisher=ScienceDaily LLC | work=ScienceDaily | title=Penn Museum Archaeochemist And International Scholars Confirm 9,000-Year History of Chinese Fermented Beverages | date=24 December 2004 | access-date=28 February 2018 | archive-date=23 August 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180823121103/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/12/041219134133.htm | url-status=live }}</ref> If these drinks, which seem to be the precursors of [[rice wine]], included grapes rather than other fruits, they would have been any of the several dozen indigenous wild species in China, rather than ''[[Vitis vinifera]]'', which was introduced 6000 years later.<ref name="PNAS" /><ref name="Li_et_al">{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Hua |last2=Wang |first2=Hua |last3=Li |first3=Huanmei |last4=Goodman |first4=Steve |last5=Van Der Lee |first5=Paul |last6=Xu |first6=Zhimin |last7=Fortunato |first7=Alessio |last8=Yang |first8=Ping |year=2018 |title=The worlds of wine: Old, new and ancient |journal=Wine Economics and Policy |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=178–182 |doi=10.1016/j.wep.2018.10.002 |doi-access=free|hdl=10419/194558 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Li&Bardaji">{{citation |last1=Li |first1=Yuanbo |last2=Bardaji |first2=Isabel |title=New wine world from Asia Development, regional comparison and opportunities for the wine industry in China |publisher=Universidad Politécnica de Madrid |date=2018 |pages=1 |url=http://oa.upm.es/47964/1/INVE_MEM_2017_261872.pdf |access-date=6 June 2021 |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523212541/https://oa.upm.es/47964/1/INVE_MEM_2017_261872.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Cañete_et_al">{{cite journal |last1=Cañete |first1=Eduardo |url=https://helvia.uco.es/bitstream/handle/10396/17421/sensors-18-00803.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |title=Smart Winery: A Real-Time Monitoring System for Structural Health and Ullage in Fino Style Wine Casks |last2=Chen |first2=Jaime |last3=Martín |first3=Cristian |last4=Rubio |first4=Bartolomé |journal=Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) |date=2018 |volume=18 |issue=3 |publisher=MDPI |page=2 |doi=10.3390/s18030803 |pmid=29518928 |pmc=5876521 |bibcode=2018Senso..18..803C |doi-access=free |access-date=6 June 2021 |archive-date=16 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016101904/https://helvia.uco.es/bitstream/handle/10396/17421/sensors-18-00803.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="archeologyMethodTheory2014322"/>

In 2020, a 2,600-year-old well-preserved [[Phoenicians|Phoenician]] wine press was excavated at Tell el-Burak, south of [[Sidon]] in [[Lebanon]], probably devoted to making wine for trading in their colonies.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Metcalfe |first1=Tom |title=2,600-year-old wine 'factory' unearthed in Lebanon |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/2600-year-old-wine-factory-unearthed-lebanon |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317051554/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/2600-year-old-wine-factory-unearthed-lebanon |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 March 2021 |access-date=9 October 2023 |publisher=National Geographic}}</ref> The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians, who spread outward from a base of [[city-state]]s along the [[Mediterranean]] coast centered around modern day [[Lebanon]] (as well as including small parts of [[Israel]]/[[Gaza Strip|Palestine]] and coastal [[Syria]]);<ref>{{cite book |last=McGovern |first=Patrick E. |date=2003 |title=Ancient wine: the search for the origins of viniculture |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691070803}}</ref> however, the [[Nuragic civilization|Nuragic culture]] in Sardinia already had a custom of consuming wine before the arrival of the Phoenicians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://preistoriadelcibo.iipp.it/contributi/3_32.pdf |title=La vita e il vino nella Sardegna nuragica |publisher=Preistoria del Cibo |language=it |first1=Mauro |last1=Perra |last2=Lo Schiavo |first2=Fulvia |first4=Philippe |last4=Marinval |first3=Nicolas |last3=Garnier |date=October 2015 |access-date=3 August 2018 |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803044412/http://preistoriadelcibo.iipp.it/contributi/3_32.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/26617302 |title=La Tomba di Giganti del nuraghe Arrubiu di Orroli (CA), o "La Tomba della Spada" |first1=Mauro |last1=Perra |first2=Philippe |last2=Marinval |first3=Ornella |last3=Fonzo |first4=Nicolas |last4=Garnier |language=it |journal=Rivista di Scienze Preistoriche |date=2015 |via=academia.edu |access-date=3 August 2018 |archive-date=16 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016101902/https://www.academia.edu/26617302 |url-status=live }}</ref> The wines of [[Byblos]] were exported to Egypt during the [[Old Kingdom]] and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence for this includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BCE, found with their cargoes of wine still intact, which were discovered by [[Robert Ballard]]<ref>MIT technology helps map ancient Phoenician shipwrecks MIT press release.</ref> As the first great traders in wine (''cherem''), the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of olive oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin, similar to [[retsina]].

The earliest remains of [[Persepolis|Apadana Palace]] in [[Persepolis]] dating back to 515 BCE include carvings depicting soldiers from [[Achaemenid Empire]] subject nations bringing gifts to the Achaemenid king, among them [[Armenians]] bringing their famous [[Armenian wine|wine]].

Literary references to wine are abundant in [[Homer]] (8th century BCE, but possibly relating earlier compositions), [[Alkman]] (7th century BCE), and others. In [[ancient Egypt]], six of 36 wine [[amphora]]s were found in the tomb of King [[Tutankhamun]] bearing the name "Kha'y", a royal chief [[vintner]]. Five of these amphoras were designated as originating from the king's personal estate, with the sixth from the estate of the royal house of [[Aten]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Johnson |first=Hugh | title=Vintage: The Story of Wine | page=[https://archive.org/details/vintagestoryofwi00john/page/32 32] | publisher=Simon and Schuster | year=1989 | isbn=978-0-671-68702-1 | url=https://archive.org/details/vintagestoryofwi00john/page/32 }}</ref> Traces of wine have also been found in central Asian [[Xinjiang]] in modern-day China, dating from the second and first millennia BCE.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sytu.edu.cn/zhgjiu/u5-2.htm |title=Wine Production in China |access-date=25 June 2008 |last1=Rong |first1=Xu Gan |first2=Bao Tong |last2=Fa |work=Grandiose Survey of Chinese Alcoholic Drinks and Beverages |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828140517/http://www.sytu.edu.cn/zhgjiu/u5-2.htm |archive-date=28 August 2008 }}</ref>

[[File:29-autunno,Taccuino Sanitatis, Casanatense 4182..jpg|thumb|right|[[Pressing wine]] after the harvest; ''Tacuinum Sanitatis'', 14th century]]
The first known mention of [[grape]]-based wines in [[India]] is from the late 4th-century BCE writings of [[Chanakya]], the chief minister of Emperor [[Chandragupta Maurya]]. In his writings, Chanakya condemns the use of alcohol while chronicling the emperor and his court's frequent indulgence of a style of wine known as ''madhu''.<ref name="Oxford pg 355-356">{{cite book |editor-first=J. |editor-last=Robinson |title=The Oxford Companion to Wine |edition=Third |pages=355–356 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2006 |isbn=0-19-860990-6}}</ref>

The [[Ancient Rome and wine|ancient Romans]] planted vineyards near garrison towns so wine could be produced locally rather than shipped over long distances. Some of these areas are now world-renowned for wine production.<ref>{{cite book |first=H. |last=Johnson |title=Vintage: The Story of Wine |pages=82–89 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |date=1989 |isbn=0-671-68702-6}}</ref> The Romans discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from a [[vinegar]] smell.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.practicalwinery.com/janfeb09/page1.htm |work=Practical Winery & Vineyard Journal |issue=January/February 2009 |last=Henderson |first=Pat |title=Sulfur Dioxide: Science behind this anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, wine additive |date=1 February 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928111625/http://www.practicalwinery.com/janfeb09/page1.htm|archive-date=28 September 2013}}</ref> In [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]], the [[Roman Catholic Church]] supported wine because the clergy required it for the [[Eucharist (Catholic Church)|Mass]]. [[Monk]]s in [[France]] made wine for years, aging it in caves.<ref name="Phillips pg 62-63">{{cite book |last=Phillips |first=Rod |title=A Short History of Wine |date=12 November 2002 |publisher=Harper Perennial |isbn=978-0-06-093737-9 |pages=62–63}}</ref> An old English recipe that survived in various forms until the 19th century calls for refining white wine from bastard—bad or tainted ''[[bastardo (grape)|bastardo]]'' wine.<ref>{{cite episode| title = The Great Resource| series = Tales from the Palaces| series-link = Tales from the Palaces| airdate = 3 November 2006| series-no = 1| number = 9}}</ref>

Later, the descendants of the sacramental wine were refined for a more palatable taste. This gave rise to modern [[viticulture]] in [[French wine]], [[Italian wine]], [[Spanish wine]], and these wine grape traditions were brought into [[New World wine]]. For example, [[Mission (grape)|Mission grapes]] were brought by Franciscan monks to [[New Mexico]] in 1628 beginning the [[New Mexico wine]] heritage, these grapes were also brought to [[California]] which started the [[California wine]] industry. Thanks to Spanish wine culture, these two regions eventually evolved into the oldest and largest producers, respectively, of [[wine of the United States]].<ref>{{cite web |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/agx/ISMG/Global%20Wine%20Report%20Final%20Aug2006.pdf |title=Global Wine Report August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408235146/http://www.fas.usda.gov/agx/ISMG/Global%20Wine%20Report%20Final%20Aug2006.pdf |archive-date=8 April 2008 |pages=7–9}}</ref><ref name="Birchell Steel 2013 p.">{{cite book | last1=Birchell | first1=D.B. | last2=Steel | first2=G. | title=New Mexico Wine: An Enchanting History | publisher=American Palate | series=American Palate Series | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-60949-643-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5f0kvgAACAAJ | language=it | access-date=15 November 2019 }}</ref><ref name="New Mexico. Office of Cultural Affairs 1995 p.">{{cite book | author=New Mexico. Office of Cultural Affairs | title=Enchanted Lifeways: The History, Museums, Arts & Festivals of New Mexico | publisher=New Mexico Magazine | year=1995 | isbn=978-0-937206-39-3 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvoRAQAAIAAJ | access-date=15 November 2019 }}</ref> Viking sagas earlier mentioned a fantastic land filled with wild grapes and high-quality wine called precisely [[Vinland]].<ref name="Team 2017">{{cite web | title=Vinland: The Mystical Legend of "The Land of Grapes" | website=WineCoolerDirect.com | date=19 October 2017 | url=https://learn.winecoolerdirect.com/vinland/ | access-date=7 May 2020 | archive-date=17 June 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617165838/https://learn.winecoolerdirect.com/vinland/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Prior to the Spanish establishing their American wine grape traditions in California and New Mexico, both France and Britain had unsuccessfully attempted to establish grapevines in [[Florida wine|Florida]] and [[Virginia wine|Virginia]] respectively.<ref name="Sotheby, p. 462">{{cite book |first=T. |last=Stevenson |title=The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia |edition=Fourth |page=568 |publisher=Dorling Kindersly |date=2005 |isbn=0-7566-1324-8}}</ref>

In East Asia, the first modern wine industry was [[Japanese wine]], developed in 1874 after grapevines were brought back from Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Hugh |author1-link=Hugh Johnson (wine writer) |last2=Robinson |first2=Jancis |author2-link=Jancis Robinson |date=2013 |title=[[The World Atlas of Wine]] |publisher=Octopus Publishing Group |page=376 |isbn=978-1784724030}}</ref>

=== Etymology ===
[[File:Word for Wine in European languages.svg|thumb|Map showing the words for wine in European languages]]
{{Contains special characters |section=section|special=[[Linear B Syllabary|Linear B Unicode characters]] |fix= Help:Multilingual_support#Linear B |characters=Linear B}}
The English word "wine" comes from the [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] ''*winam'', an early borrowing from the [[Latin]] ''vinum'', [[Georgian language|Georgian]] ''ღვინო'' (''ghvee-no''), "wine", itself derived from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] stem *''win-o-'' (cf. {{lang-hy|գինի}}, ''[[wikt:գինի|gini]]''; [[Ancient Greek]]: {{lang|grc|οἶνος}} ''oinos''; [[Aeolic Greek]]: {{lang|grc|[[digamma|ϝ]]οῖνος}} ''woinos''; [[Hittite language|Hittite]]: ''wiyana''; [[Lycian language|Lycian]]: ''oino'').<ref>{{OEtymD|wine}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Whiter |first=Walter |encyclopedia=Etymologicon Magnum, Or Universal Etymological Dictionary, on a New Plan |title=Wine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRPVgBfSrdMC&q=foinos+wine&pg=PA145 |access-date=25 June 2008 |year=1800 |publisher=Francis Hodson |pages=145}}</ref><ref>{{LSJ|oi){{=}}nos1|οἶνος|ref}}.</ref> The earliest attested terms referring to wine are the [[Mycenaean Greek]] {{lang|gmy|𐀕𐀶𐀺𐄀𐀚𐀺}} ''me-tu-wo ne-wo'' (*{{lang|grc|μέθυϝος νέϝῳ}}),<ref>Found on the [[Pylos|PY]] Fr 1202 tablet.</ref><ref>[[Cf.]] {{LSJ|me/qu^|μέθυ|shortref}}.</ref> meaning "in (the month)" or "(festival) of the new wine", and {{lang|gmy|𐀺𐀜𐀷𐀴𐀯}} ''wo-no-wa-ti-si'',<ref>Found on the PY Vn 48 and PY Xa 1419 tablets.</ref> meaning "wine garden", written in [[Linear B]] inscriptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~prehistory/aegean/?page_id=651|title=Mycenaean and Late Cycladic Religion and Religious Architecture|publisher=Dartmouth College|access-date=28 March 2014|archive-date=27 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627172549/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~prehistory/aegean/?page_id=651|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=T.G. |last=Palaima |url=http://www2.ulg.ac.be/archgrec/IMG/aegeum/aegaeum12%28pdf%29/Palaima.pdf |title=The Last days of Pylos Polity |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516070021/http://www2.ulg.ac.be/archgrec/IMG/aegeum/aegaeum12%28pdf%29/Palaima.pdf |archive-date=16 May 2011 |publisher=Université de Liège}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-first=James C. |editor-last=Wright |title=The Mycenaean feast |publisher=American School of Classical Studies |date=2004 |isbn=9780876619513 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VJ6vBrYKPnMC&dq=me-tu-wo-ne-wo&pg=PA203 |via=Google books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Palaeolexicon - The Linear B word wo-no-wa-ti-si |url=http://www.palaeolexicon.com/Word/Show/16682 |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=www.palaeolexicon.com}}</ref> Linear B also includes, inter alia, an [[ideogram]] for wine, i.e. {{lang|gmy|𐂖}}.

The ultimate Indo-European origin of the word is the subject of some continued debate. Some scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine in [[Indo-European languages]] (e.g. Armenian ''[[wikt:գինի|gini]]'', Latin ''vinum'', Ancient Greek οἶνος, [[Russian language|Russian]] вино {{IPA|ru|vʲɪˈno|}}), [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]] (e.g. [[Georgian language|Georgian]] [[wikt:ღვინო|ღვინო]] {{IPA-ka|ˈɣvino|}}), and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] (''*wayn''; [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] יין {{IPA|he|jajin|}}), pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the word denoting "wine" in these language families.<ref>{{cite book |first=Benjamin W. |last=Fortson IV |title=Indo-European Language and Culture, an introduction |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |date=2010 |page=42 |isbn=9781405188968 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kn5c5dJmNUC&q=wine |via=Google books}}</ref> The Georgian word goes back to [[Proto-Kartvelian]] *''ɣwino''-,<ref name="klimov">{{cite book |last=Klimov |first=Georgij |date=1998 |title=Etymological Dictionary of the Kartvelian Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3B1ryOyFPFkC |location=Berlin |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |page=227 |isbn=978-3-11-015658-4 |access-date=26 April 2015}}</ref> which is either a borrowing from [[Proto-Indo-European]]<ref name="klimov" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gamkrelidze|first1=Thomas V.|last2=Ivanov|first2=Vjačeslav V.|title=Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A reconstruction and historical analysis of a proto-language and a proto-culture|publisher=Mouton De Gruyter|location=Berlin/New York|date=1994|isbn=3-11-009646-3}}</ref><ref name="s1">{{Cite book |last=Whitehead |first=Benedicte Nielsen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vm2SugMy8C0C&dq=%C9%A3wino&pg=PA505 |title=The Sound of Indo-European: Phonetics, Phonemics, and Morphophonemics |date=2012 |publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |isbn=978-87-635-3838-1 |pages=505 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-link1=Asya Pereltsvaig |last1=Pereltsvaig |first1=Asya |first2=Martin W. |last2=Lewis |date=2015 |title=The Indo-European Controversy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=193–195}}</ref><ref name="as1">{{cite book |last=Arbeitman |first=Yoël |date=2000 |title=The Asia Minor Connexion: Studies on the Pre-Greek Languages in Memory of Charles Carter |publisher=Peeters Publishers}}</ref><ref name="an1">{{cite book |last=Siewierska |first=Anna |date=1998 |title=Constituent Order in the Languages of Europe |location=Berlin |publisher=Walter de Gruyter}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=December 2023}} or the lexeme was specifically borrowed from [[Proto-Armenian]] *''ɣʷeinyo''-, whence Armenian ''gini''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Martirosyan|first=Hrach|author-link=Hrach Martirosyan|title=Etymological Dictionary of the Armenian Inherited Lexicon|url=https://archive.org/details/etymologicaldict00mart|url-access=limited|year=2010|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|location=Leiden, Boston|page=[https://archive.org/details/etymologicaldict00mart/page/n227 214]|isbn=9789004173378}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Adjarian|first=Hrachia|title=Hayerēn armatakan baṙaran [Dictionary of Armenian Root Words]|publisher=Yerevan State University|location=Yerevan|page=559|volume=I|url=http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=7&pageNumber=564|language=hy|access-date=6 April 2014|archive-date=26 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226011243/http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=7&pageNumber=564|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Starostin|first=Sergei|title=Kartvelian Etymology database|url=http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=%5Cdata%5Ckart%5Ckartet&first=1&text_proto=%C9%A3wino&method_proto=substring|access-date=6 April 2014|archive-date=7 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407095237/http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=%5Cdata%5Ckart%5Ckartet&first=1&text_proto=%C9%A3wino&method_proto=substring|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Robert S. P.|last=Beekes|author-link=Robert S. P. Beekes|year=2010|title=Etymological Dictionary of Greek|location=Leiden, Boston|publisher=Brill|page=1059|volume=II|series=Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, volume 10|others=with the assistance of Lucien van Beek}}</ref><ref name="klimov" />{{verification needed|date=December 2023}} An alternate hypothesis by Fähnrich supposes *''ɣwino''-, a native Kartvelian word derived from the verbal root *''ɣun''- ('to bend').<ref>{{cite book|last=Fähnrich|first=Heinz|title=Kartwelisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch|url=https://archive.org/details/kartwelischesety00fhnr|url-access=limited|year=2007|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden, Boston|page=[https://archive.org/details/kartwelischesety00fhnr/page/n485 486]|isbn=9789004161092|language=de}}</ref> See [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Kartvelian/ɣwino-|*''ɣwino''-]] for more. All these theories place the origin of the word in the same geographical location, South Caucasus, that has been established based on archeological and biomolecular studies as the origin of viticulture.

== Types of wine ==
Wine types:
* [[Red wine]], made from blue grapes with skins.
* [[White wine]], made from green grapes or destemmed blue grapes.
* [[Rosé wine]], made from blue grapes, where the skins are sorted from early in the [[fermentation]] process or rosé wine can also be made from rosé wine grape varieties.
* [[Orange wine]], made from white wine grapes where the grape skins are not removed
* [[Sparkling wine]], made from both green and blue grapes. [[Champagne]] is made from [[pinot noir]], [[Pinot Meunier|pinot meunier]] and [[chardonnay]] around [[Reims]].
* [[Fortified wine]], wine with a higher alcohol content than the other types. 
* [[Ice wine]], wine with a characteristically sweet taste and low alcohol content.
* [[Dessert wine]], are sweet wines that are typically served with a dessert.

The types have such different properties that in practice they are considered different drinks.

== Styles ==
Wine is made in many ways from different fruits, with grapes being the most common.

=== From grapes ===
The type of grape used and the amount of [[Maceration (wine)|skin contact]] while the juice is being extracted determines the color and general style of the wine. The color has no relation to a wine's [[Sweetness of wine|sweetness]]—all may be made sweet or dry.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Types of wine from grapes
!
!Long contact with grape skins
!Short contact with grape skins
!No contact with grape skins
|-
![[List of grape varieties|Red grapes]]
|[[Red wine]]
|[[Rosé|Rosé wine]]
| rowspan="2" |[[White wine]]
|-
![[List of grape varieties|White grapes]]
|[[Orange wine]]
|
|}

==== Red ====
{{Main|Red wine}}
Red wine gains its color and flavor (notably, [[Tannins (wine)|tannins]]) from the grape skin, by allowing the grapes to [[Maceration (wine)|soak in the extracted juice]]. Red wine is made from dark-colored [[grape varieties|red grape varieties]]. The actual [[Wine color|color of the wine]] can range from violet, typical of young wines, through red for mature wines, to brown for older red wines. The juice from most red grapes is actually greenish-white; the red color comes from [[anthocyanin]]s present in the skin of the grape. A notable exception is the family of rare ''[[teinturier]]'' varieties, which actually have red flesh and produce red juice.

==== White ====
{{Main|White wine}}
To make white wine, grapes are pressed quickly with the juice immediately drained away from the grape skins. The grapes used are typically [[Grape varieties|white grape varieties]], though red grapes may be used if the winemaker is careful not to let the skin stain the [[wort]] during the separation of the pulp-juice. For example, [[pinot noir]] (a red grape) is commonly used in [[champagne]].

[[Sweetness of wine|Dry]] (low sugar) white wine is the most common, derived from the complete fermentation of the juice, however sweet white wines such as [[Moscato d'Asti]] are also made.

==== Rosé ====
{{Main|Rosé wine}}
A rosé wine gains [[wine color|color]] from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a [[red wine]]. It may be the oldest known type of wine, as it is the most straightforward to make with the [[Maceration (wine)|skin contact method]]. The color can range from a pale orange to a vivid near-purple, depending on the varietals used and wine-making techniques.

There are three primary ways to produce rosé wine: Skin contact (allowing dark grape skins to stain the [[wort]]), saignée (removing juice from the [[must]] early in fermentation and continuing fermentation of the juice separately), and [[Blending (alcohol production)|blending]] of a red and white wine (uncommon and discouraged in most wine growing regions). Rosé wines have a wide range of [[sweetness (wine)|sweetness levels]] from [[dryness (taste)|dry]] [[Provençal (wine)|Provençal]] rosé to sweet [[White Zinfandel]]s and blushes. Rosé wines are made from a wide variety of grapes all over the world.<ref name="Oxford">J. Robinson (ed) ''"The Oxford Companion to Wine"'' Third Edition pg 593 Oxford University Press 2006 {{ISBN|0-19-860990-6}}</ref><ref name="Clarke encyclopedia">O. Clarke ''Oz Clarke's Encyclopedia of Wine'' pgs 15, 225, 320, 360 Time Warner Books, London 2003 {{ISBN|0-316-72654-0}}</ref>

==== Orange ====
{{Main|Orange wine}}
Sometimes called amber wines, these are wines made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to [[Maceration (wine)|soak]] during pressing, similar to red and rosé wine production. They are notably [[Tannic (wine)|tannic]], and usually made dry.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Waldin|first1=Monty|title=orange wine|date=2015-11-19|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198705383.001.0001/acref-9780198705383-e-4149|work=The Oxford Companion to Wine|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198705383.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-870538-3|access-date=2021-06-04|last2=A|first2=Harvey David A. Harvey David|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604204131/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198705383.001.0001/acref-9780198705383-e-4149|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Sparkling====
{{Main|Sparkling wine}}
These are [[Effervescence|effervescent]] wines, made in any of the above styles (i.e, orange, red, rosé, white). They must undergo [[Secondary fermentation (wine)|secondary fermentation]] to create [[carbon dioxide]], which creates the bubbles.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The most popular Types of wine & types of wine grapes|url=https://www.foodandbeverageknowledge.com/2021/05/the-most-popular-types-of-wine-types-of.html|access-date=2021-05-24|website=Food and Beverage service knowledge|archive-date=21 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521090242/https://www.foodandbeverageknowledge.com/2021/05/the-most-popular-types-of-wine-types-of.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Two common methods of accomplishing this are the [[traditional method]], used for [[Cava (Spanish wine)|Cava]], [[Champagne]], and more expensive sparkling wines, and the [[Charmat method]], used for [[Prosecco]], [[Asti wine|Asti]], and less expensive wines. A hybrid ''transfer method'' is also used, yielding intermediate results, and simple addition of carbon dioxide is used in the cheapest of wines.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Culbert|first1=Julie|last2=Cozzolino|first2=Daniel|last3=Ristic|first3=Renata|last4=Wilkinson|first4=Kerry|date=2015-05-08|title=Classification of Sparkling Wine Style and Quality by MIR Spectroscopy|journal=Molecules|language=en|volume=20|issue=5|pages=8341–8356|doi=10.3390/molecules20058341|pmid=26007169|pmc=6272211|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The bottles used for sparkling wine must be thick to withstand the pressure of the gas behind the [[Cork (plug)|cork]], which can be up to {{Convert|6|atm|psi}}.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How much pressure is there in a champagne bottle?|url=https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/how-much-pressure-is-there-in-a-champagne-bottle/|access-date=2021-06-04|website=BBC Science Focus Magazine|language=en|archive-date=4 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604204135/https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/how-much-pressure-is-there-in-a-champagne-bottle/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Dessert ====
{{main|Dessert wine}}This refers to sweet wines that have a high level of [[Sweetness of wine|sugar]] remaining after [[fermentation]]. There are various ways of increasing the amount of sugar in a wine, yielding products with different strengths and names. [[Ice wine|Icewine]], [[Port wine|Port]], [[Sauternes (wine)|Sauternes]], [[Tokaji|Tokaji Aszú]], [[Trockenbeerenauslese]], and [[Vin Santo]] are some examples.

=== From other fruits and foods ===

==== Fruit ====
{{Main|Fruit wine}}
[[Fruit wine|Wines from other fruits]], such as apples and berries, are usually named after the fruit from which they are produced, and combined with the word "wine" (for example, [[Apfelwein|apple wine]] and [[elderberry wine]]) and are generically called [[fruit wine]] or country wine (similar to [[French language|French]] term ''[[vin de pays]]''). Other than the grape [[variety (botany)|varieties]] traditionally used for wine-making, most fruits naturally lack either sufficient fermentable sugars, proper amount of acidity, yeast amounts needed to promote or maintain fermentation, or a combination of these three materials. This is probably one of the main reasons why wine derived from grapes has historically been more prevalent by far than other types, and why specific types of fruit wines have generally been confined to the regions in which the fruits were native or introduced for other reasons.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

==== Honey ====
{{Main|Mead}}
Mead, also called honey wine, is created by fermenting [[honey]] with water, sometimes with various fruits, spices, grains, or [[hops]]. As long as the primary substance fermented is honey, the drink is considered mead.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rites of Odin|first=Edward|last=Fitch|publisher=Llewellyn Worldwide|year=1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kg8nObaAZMEC |isbn=978-0-87542-224-4|page=290|location=St. Paul, Minnesota}}</ref> Mead was produced in ancient history throughout Europe, Africa and Asia,<ref>Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat (Anthea Bell, tr.) ''The History of Food'', 2nd ed. 2009:30.</ref> and was known in Europe before grape wine.<ref name=Hornsey>{{cite book| last=Hornsey | first =Ian| title=A History of Beer and Brewing | publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry | year=2003 | page=7| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QqnvNsgas20C | isbn=978-0-85404-630-0 | quote=...mead was known in Europe long before wine, although archaeological evidence of it is rather ambiguous. This is principally because the confirmed presence of beeswax or certain types of pollen ... is only indicative of the presence of honey (which could have been used for sweetening some other drink) – not necessarily of the production of mead. }}</ref>

==== Starch ====
Other drinks called "wine", such as [[barley wine]] and [[rice wine]] (e.g. [[sake]], [[huangjiu]] and [[Cheongju (beverage)|cheongju]]), are made from starch-based materials and resemble [[beer]] more than traditional wine, while [[ginger wine]] is fortified with [[brandy]]. In these latter cases, the term "wine" refers to the similarity in alcohol content rather than to the production process.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.avbc.com/news/BW.html |title=Barley Wine |access-date=25 June 2008 |last=Allen |first=Fal |publisher=Anderson Valley Brewing Company |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080227015623/http://www.avbc.com/news/BW.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 27 February 2008}}</ref> The commercial use of the English word "wine" (and its equivalent in other languages) is protected by law in many jurisdictions.<ref name="Wine Label decoder">{{cite book |last=George |first=Rosemary |title=The Simon & Schuster Pocket Wine Label Decoder |year=1991 |publisher=Fireside |isbn=978-0-671-72897-7}}</ref>

== Grape varieties ==
[[File:Moldova_Competitiveness_Project,_USAID_Moldova_(48121804303).jpg|thumb|right|Grape vineyard]]
{{Main|List of grape varieties}}

Wine is usually made from one or more [[Variety (biology)|varieties]] of the European [[species]] ''[[Vitis vinifera]]'', such as [[Pinot noir]], [[Chardonnay]], [[Cabernet Sauvignon]], [[Gamay]] and [[Merlot]]. When one of these varieties is used as the predominant grape (usually defined by law as minimums of 75% to 85%), the result is a "[[varietal]]" as opposed to a "blended" wine. Blended wines are not necessarily inferior to varietal wines, rather they are a different style of wine-making.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/01/dining/drinks/wine-school-california-grenache.html|title=Don't Judge a Wine by the Grape on Its Label|date=2018-02-01|work=The New York Times|access-date=2018-04-09|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=9 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180409181539/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/01/dining/drinks/wine-school-california-grenache.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Wine can also be made from other species of grape or from [[Hybrid (grapes)|hybrids]], created by the [[genetic crossing (vine)|genetic crossing]] of two species. ''[[Vitis labrusca|V. labrusca]]'' (of which the [[Concord grape]] is a [[cultivar]]), ''[[Vitis aestivalis|V. aestivalis]]'', ''[[Vitis rupestris|V. rupestris]]'', ''[[Vitis rotundifolia|V. rotundifolia]]'' and ''[[Vitis riparia|V. riparia]]'' are native [[North America]]n grapes usually grown to eat fresh or for grape juice, jam, or jelly, and only occasionally made into wine.

Hybridization is different from [[grafting]]. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European ''Vitis vinifera'' vines that have been grafted onto North American species' rootstock, a common practice due to their resistance to [[phylloxera]], a root louse that eventually kills the vine. In the late 19th century, most of Europe's vineyards (excluding some of the driest in the south) were devastated by the infestation, leading to widespread vine deaths and eventual replanting. Grafting is done in every wine-producing region in the world except in [[Argentina]] and the [[Canary Islands]] – the only places not yet exposed to the insect.<ref name="Robinson pg 97">{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Jancis |title=Jancis Robinson's Wine Course: A Guide to the World of Wine |date=28 April 2006 |publisher=Abbeville Press |isbn=978-0-7892-0883-5 |page=97}}</ref>

In the context of wine production, ''[[terroir]]'' is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeast cultures.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fraga|first1=Helder|last2=Malheiro|first2=Aureliano C.|last3=Moutinho-Pereira|first3=José|last4=Cardoso|first4=Rita M.|last5=Soares|first5=Pedro M. M.|last6=Cancela|first6=Javier J.|last7=Pinto|first7=Joaquim G.|last8=Santos|first8=João A.|last9=Álvarez|first9=Inés| display-authors = 8|title=Integrated Analysis of Climate, Soil, Topography and Vegetative Growth in Iberian Viticultural Regions|journal=PLOS ONE|date=24 September 2014|volume=9|issue=9|pages=e108078|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0108078|pmid=25251495|pmc=4176712|bibcode=2014PLoSO...9j8078F|doi-access=free}}</ref> The range of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences among wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well. Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the [[aroma (wine)|aroma]] and taste influences of their unique ''terroir''.<ref name="Johnson & Robinson pg 22-23">{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Hugh |author2=Jancis Robinson |title=The World Atlas of Wine |date=13 September 2001 |publisher=Mitchell Beazley |isbn=978-1-84000-332-1 |pages=22–23}}</ref> However, flavor differences are less desirable for producers of mass-market [[table wine]] or other cheaper wines, where consistency takes precedence. Such producers try to minimize differences in sources of grapes through production techniques such as [[micro-oxygenation]], tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film evaporation,
and spinning cones.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://winegeeks.com/articles/85 |title=High Alcohol is a Wine Fault... Not a Badge of Honor |access-date=25 June 2008 |last=Citriglia |first=Matthew |date=14 May 2006 |publisher=GeekSpeak, LLC |archive-date=5 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080505010850/http://winegeeks.com/articles/85 |url-status=live }}</ref>

About 700 grapes go into one bottle of wine, approximately 2.6 pounds.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/life/g25692093/random-trivia/?slide=25|title = Celebrate National Trivia Day with These 35 Fun Facts|date = 27 December 2019|access-date = 30 December 2020|archive-date = 3 August 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210803165939/https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/life/g25692093/random-trivia/?slide=25|url-status = live}}</ref>

== Classification ==
{{Main|Classification of wine}}
[[File:Wine grapes03.jpg|thumb|upright|Wine grapes on a vine]]

Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the world. European wines tend to be classified by region (e.g. [[Bordeaux wine|Bordeaux]], [[Rioja (wine)|Rioja]] and [[Chianti]]), while non-European wines are most often classified by grape (e.g. [[Pinot noir]] and [[Merlot]]). Market recognition of particular regions has recently been leading to their increased prominence on non-European wine labels. Examples of recognized non-European locales include [[Napa Valley AVA|Napa Valley]], Santa Clara Valley, [[Sonoma Valley AVA|Sonoma Valley]], Anderson Valley, and [[Mendocino County]] in California; [[Willamette Valley (wine)|Willamette Valley]] and [[Rogue Valley AVA|Rogue Valley]] in [[Oregon (wine)|Oregon]]; [[Columbia Valley (wine)|Columbia Valley]] in [[Washington (wine)|Washington]]; [[Barossa Valley (wine)|Barossa Valley]] in [[South Australia (wine)|South Australia]]; [[Hunter Valley (wine)|Hunter Valley]] in [[New South Wales (wine)|New South Wales]]; Luján de Cuyo in [[Argentina (wine)|Argentina]]; Vale dos Vinhedos in [[Brazil]]; [[Hawke's Bay Region|Hawke's Bay]] and [[Marlborough Region|Marlborough]] in [[New Zealand (wine)|New Zealand]]; Central Valley in [[Chile (wine)|Chile]]; and in [[Canadian wine|Canada]], the [[Okanagan Valley (wine)|Okanagan Valley]] of [[British Columbia wine|British Columbia]], and the [[Niagara Peninsula]] and [[Essex County, Ontario|Essex County]] regions of [[Ontario wine|Ontario]] are the three largest producers.

Some blended wine names are marketing terms whose use is governed by [[trademark]] law rather than by specific wine laws. For example, [[Meritage]] is generally a Bordeaux-style blend of [[Cabernet Sauvignon]] and Merlot, but may also include [[Cabernet Franc]], [[Petit Verdot]], and [[Malbec]]. Commercial use of the term Meritage is allowed only via licensing agreements with the Meritage Association.

=== European classifications ===
[[File:Moscato d'Asti.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Italian [[Moscato d'Asti]], a [[Denominazione di origine controllata|DOCG]] wine]]
France has various [[appellation]] systems based on the concept of ''terroir'', with classifications ranging from ''[[Vin de Table]]'' ("table wine") at the bottom, through ''[[Vin de Pays]]'' and ''[[Appellation d'Origine Vin Délimité de Qualité Supérieure]]'' (AOVDQS), up to ''[[Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée]]'' (AOC) or similar, depending on the region.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.terroir-france.com/wine/rates.htm |title=Wine classification |access-date=22 June 2007 |work=French Wine Guide |archive-date=1 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801163958/http://www.terroir-france.com/wine/rates.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wineanorak.com/terroir2.htm |title=Terroir revisited: towards a working definition |access-date=22 June 2007 |last=Goode |first=Jamie |archive-date=23 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200323181113/https://wineanorak.com/terroir2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Portugal]] has developed a system resembling that of France and, in fact, pioneered this concept in 1756 with a royal charter creating the Demarcated Douro Region and regulating the production and trade of wine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.250rdd.utad.pt/en/index.html |title=The Spirit of the Commemorations |access-date=25 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080523163736/http://www.250rdd.utad.pt/en/index.html |archive-date=23 May 2008 }}</ref> Germany created a similar scheme in 2002, although it has not yet achieved the authority of the other countries' classification systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.germanwinesociety.org/wine_classification.htm |title=About German Wine |access-date=22 June 2007 |work=German wine society |archive-date=4 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904060723/http://www.germanwinesociety.org/wine_classification.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thewinedoctor.com/regionalguides/germanylawsandclassifications.shtml |title=German Wine Guide: Wine Laws and Classifications |access-date=22 June 2007 |work=The Winedoctor |archive-date=22 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122121449/http://www.thewinedoctor.com/regionalguides/germanylawsandclassifications.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Spain]], [[Greece]] and [[Italy]] have classifications based on a dual system of region of origin and product quality.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.winesfromspain.com/icex/cda/controller/pageGen/0,3346,1549487_4938361_4938888_1_-1,00.html |title=Land of wines |access-date=17 July 2007 |work=Wines from Spain |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070831222708/http://www.winesfromspain.com/icex/cda/controller/pageGen/0,3346,1549487_4938361_4938888_1_-1,00.html |archive-date=31 August 2007 }}</ref>

=== Beyond Europe ===
[[New World wines]]—those made outside the traditional wine regions of Europe—are usually classified by grape rather than by ''terroir'' or region of origin, although there have been unofficial attempts to classify them by quality.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nicks.com.au/Index.aspx?link_id=76.907 |title=Towards an Australian Wine Classification |last=Chlebnikowski |first=Simon |author2=Alex Chlebnikowski |access-date=26 June 2008 |publisher=Nicks Wine Merchants |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080504155940/http://www.nicks.com.au/Index.aspx?link_id=76.907 |archive-date=4 May 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.camwheeler.com/wine/2005/langtons-australian-wine-classification-iv/ |title=Langton's Australian Wine Classification IV |access-date=26 June 2008 |date=27 July 2007 |archive-date=27 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227135931/http://www.camwheeler.com/wine/2005/langtons-australian-wine-classification-iv/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{update inline|date=February 2020}}

According to Canadian Food and Drug Regulations, wine in Canada is an alcoholic drink that is produced by the complete or partial alcoholic fermentation of fresh grapes, grape must, products derived solely from fresh grapes, or any combination of them. There are many materials added during the course of the manufacture, such as yeast, concentrated grape juice, [[dextrose]], [[fructose]], [[glucose]] or glucose solids, [[inverted sugar syrup|invert sugar]], sugar, or aqueous solutions. [[Calcium sulphate]] in such quantity that the content of soluble sulphates in the finished wine shall not exceed 0.2 percent weight by volume calculated as potassium sulphate. [[Calcium carbonate]] in such quantity that the content of [[tartaric acid]] in the finished wine shall not be less than 0.15 percent weight by volume. Also, [[sulphurous acid]], including salts thereof, in such quantity that its content in the finished wine shall not exceed 70 parts per million in the free state, or 350 parts per million in the combined state, calculated as sulphur dioxide. Caramel, [[amylase]] and [[pectinase]] at a maximum level of use consistent with good manufacturing practice. Prior to final filtration may be treated with a strongly acid cation exchange resin in the sodium ion form, or a weakly basic anion exchange resin in the hydroxyl ion form.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C.,_c._870/page-31.html#h-62|title=Consolidated federal laws of canada, Food and Drug Regulations|last=Branch|first=Legislative Services|website=laws.justice.gc.ca|language=en|access-date=2017-07-19|archive-date=17 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170717042107/http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/C.R.C.,_c._870/page-31.html#h-62|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Vintages ==
{{Main|Vintage}}
[[File:Champagne millésimé 1995.JPG|right|thumb|upright|Vintage French Champagne]]
In the United States, for a wine to be vintage-dated and labeled with a country of origin or [[American Viticultural Area]] (AVA; e.g., [[Sonoma Valley]]), 95% of its volume must be from grapes harvested in that year.<ref name="27 CFR 4.27">[[Title 27 of the United States Code]], [[Code of Federal Regulations]] [http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=33fc0c0194b58b6fe95208945b5c637a&rgn=div5&view=text&node=27:1.0.1.1.2&idno=27#27:1.0.1.1.2.3.25.8 §&nbsp;4.27] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070217043053/http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=33fc0c0194b58b6fe95208945b5c637a&rgn=div5&view=text&node=27:1.0.1.1.2&idno=27 |date=17 February 2007 }}</ref> If a wine is not labeled with a country of origin or AVA the percentage requirement is lowered to 85%.<ref name="27 CFR 4.27" />

Vintage wines are generally bottled in a single batch so that each bottle will have a similar taste. Climate's impact on the character of a wine can be significant enough to cause different vintages from the same vineyard to vary dramatically in flavor and quality.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.frenchscout.com/wine-vintages |title=Wine vintages, vintage charts |access-date=26 June 2008 |last=Breton |first=Félicien |publisher=French Scout |archive-date=13 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113212824/http://www.frenchscout.com/wine-vintages |url-status=live }}</ref> Thus, vintage wines are produced to be individually characteristic of the particular vintage and to serve as the flagship wines of the producer. Superior vintages from reputable producers and regions will often command much higher prices than their average ones. Some vintage wines (e.g. [[Brunello di Montalcino|Brunello]]), are only made in better-than-average years.

For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage, which helps wine-makers sustain a reliable market image and maintain sales even in bad years.<ref>{{cite news |first=Clive |last=Platman |title=Wine: Lovely bubbly |date=2 October 2002 |url=http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:AWNB:BPOC&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=0F671027250245CB&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated4&req_dat=0D0CB57AB53DF815 |work=[[Birmingham Post]] |access-date=26 June 2008 |archive-date=10 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110080330/http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=May 2006 |title=Change to Vintage Date Requirements (2005R-212P) |journal=[[Federal Register]] |volume=71 |issue=84 |url=http://regulations.justia.com/view/43285/ |access-date=26 June 2008 |page=25748 |author=Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau |archive-date=16 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216145300/http://regulations.justia.com/view/43285/ |url-status=live }}</ref> One recent study suggests that for the average wine drinker, the vintage year may not be as significant for perceived quality as had been thought, although wine connoisseurs continue to place great importance on it.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.liquidasset.com/WEILVDQS.PDF |title=Parker v. Prial: The Death of the Vintage Chart |access-date=26 June 2008 |last=Weil |first=Roman L. |author-link=Roman L. Weil |date=25 May 2001 |archive-date=25 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625002705/http://www.liquidasset.com/WEILVDQS.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Tasting ==
[[File:Tempranillowine.jpg|thumb|Judging [[wine color|color]] is the first step in tasting a wine.]]
{{Main|Wine tasting}}
{{See also|Wine tasting descriptors}}
[[Wine tasting]] is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine. Wines contain many chemical compounds similar or identical to those in fruits, vegetables, and [[spice]]s. The [[sweetness of wine]] is determined by the amount of residual sugar in the wine after fermentation, relative to the acidity present in the wine. [[Dry wine]], for example, has only a small amount of residual sugar. Some wine labels suggest opening the bottle and letting the wine "breathe" for a couple of hours before serving, while others recommend drinking it immediately. [[Decanter|Decanting]] (the act of pouring a wine into a special container just for breathing) is a controversial subject among wine enthusiasts. In addition to aeration, decanting with a filter allows the removal of bitter sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles, but aeration may benefit younger wines.<ref name="Johnson & Robinson pg 46">{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Hugh |author2=Jancis Robinson |title=The World Atlas of Wine |date=13 September 2001 |publisher=Mitchell Beazley |isbn=978-1-84000-332-1 |page=46}}</ref>

During aeration, a younger wine's exposure to air often "relaxes" the drink, making it smoother and better integrated in aroma, texture, and flavor. Older wines generally fade (lose their character and flavor intensity) with extended aeration.<ref>{{cite news | title =Fruity character and breathing times | date =18 September 2005 | url =http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:AWNB:KLSC&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=10CBABDF8E627AD8&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated4&req_dat=0D0CB57AB53DF815 | work =[[The New Straits Times]] | access-date =24 October 2007 | archive-date =10 November 2013 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20131110080330/http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004 | url-status =live }}</ref> Despite these general rules, breathing does not necessarily benefit all wines. Wine may be tasted as soon as the bottle is opened to determine how long it should be aerated, if at all.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://williamsonwines.com/decanting-wine |title=Decanting wine |publisher=Williamson's Wines |quote=As a general rule wine should be tasted as soon as it is opened to determine how long it might be aerated |access-date=10 April 2018 |archive-date=10 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180410135708/https://williamsonwines.com/decanting-wine |url-status=live }}</ref>{{better source needed|we don't generaly link to commercial sites if we can avoid it|date=April 2018}} When tasting wine, individual flavors may also be detected, due to the complex mix of organic molecules (e.g. [[ester]]s and [[terpene]]s) that grape juice and wine can contain. Experienced tasters can distinguish between flavors characteristic of a specific grape and flavors that result from other factors in wine-making. Typical intentional flavor elements in wine—chocolate, vanilla, or coffee—are those imparted by aging in oak casks rather than the grape itself.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.frenchscout.com/types-of-wine |title=Types of wine |access-date=26 June 2008 |last=Breton |first=Félicien |publisher=French Scout |archive-date=25 April 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060425213221/http://www.frenchscout.com/types-of-wine |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Horizontal tasting|Vertical and horizontal tasting]] involves a range of vintages within the same grape and vineyard, or the latter in which there is one vintage from multiple vineyards. "[[Banana]]" flavors ([[isoamyl acetate]]) are the product of yeast metabolism, as are spoilage aromas such as "medicinal" or "Band-Aid" ([[4-Ethylphenol|4-ethylphenol]]), "spicy" or "smoky" ([[4-ethylguaiacol]]),<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219204946/http://www.etslabs.com/scripts/ets/pagetemplate/blank.asp?pageid=193 | archive-date=19 February 2008 |url=http://www.etslabs.com/scripts/ets/pagetemplate/blank.asp?pageid=193 |title=''Brettanomyces'' Monitoring by Analysis of 4-ethylphenol and 4-ethylguaiacol |access-date=26 June 2008 |author=ETS Laboratories |date=15 March 2001}}</ref> and rotten egg ([[hydrogen sulfide]]).<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219205658/http://www.etslabs.com/scripts/ets/pagetemplate/blank.asp?pageid=350 |archive-date=19 February 2008 |url=http://www.etslabs.com/scripts/ets/pagetemplate/blank.asp?pageid=350 |title=Sulfides in Wine |author=ETS Laboratories |date=15 May 2002}}</ref> Some varieties can also exhibit a mineral flavor due to the presence of water-soluble salts as a result of limestone's presence in the vineyard's soil. Wine aroma comes from volatile compounds released into the air.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gómez-Míguez |first=M. José |author2=Manuela Gómez-Mígueza |author3=Isabel M. Vicarioa |author4=Francisco J. Heredia |date=April 2007 |title=Assessment of colour and aroma in white wines vinifications: Effects of grape maturity and soil type |journal=Journal of Food Engineering |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=758–764 |doi=10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.02.038 }}</ref> Vaporization of these compounds can be accelerated by twirling the wine glass or serving at room temperature. Many drinkers prefer to chill red wines that are already highly aromatic, like [[Chinon AOC|Chinon]] and [[Beaujolais]].<ref name="Johnson & Robinson pg 44-45">{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Hugh |author2=Jancis Robinson |title=The World Atlas of Wine |date=13 September 2001 |publisher=Mitchell Beazley |isbn=978-1-84000-332-1 |pages=44–45}}</ref>

The ideal temperature for serving a particular wine is a matter of debate by wine enthusiasts and sommeliers, but some broad guidelines have emerged that will generally enhance the experience of tasting certain common wines. White wine should foster a sense of coolness, achieved by serving at "cellar temperature" ({{convert|13|C|F|disp=or}}). Light red wines drunk young should also be brought to the table at this temperature, where they will quickly rise a few degrees. Red wines are generally perceived best when served ''chambré'' ("at room temperature"). However, this does not mean the temperature of the dining room—often around {{convert|21|C|F}}—but rather the coolest room in the house and, therefore, always slightly cooler than the dining room itself. Pinot noir should be brought to the table for serving at {{convert|16|C|F}} and will reach its full bouquet at {{convert|18|C|F}}. Cabernet Sauvignon, zinfandel, and Rhone varieties should be served at {{convert|18|C|F}} and allowed to warm on the table to {{convert|21|C|F}} for best aroma.<ref>{{cite book |title=The great book of French cuisine |last=Pellaprat |first=Henri-Paul |year=2003 |publisher=Vendome |place=New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-9DBtWQUL0C&q=%22wine+cooler%22+temperature&pg=PT81 |isbn=978-0-86565-231-6}}</ref>

== Collecting ==
{{See also|Aging of wine|Investment wine|Storage of wine}}
[[File:Margaux94 1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Château Margaux]], a [[First Growth]] from the Bordeaux region of France, is highly collectible.]]
Outstanding vintages from the best vineyards may sell for thousands of [[United States dollar|dollars]] per bottle, though the broader term "fine wine" covers those typically retailing in excess of US$30–50.<ref>For example, [[Berry Brothers & Rudd]], one of the world's largest dealers, start "fine wine" prices at about £25—in March 2009 with a wine from [[Au Bon Climat]] [http://www.bbr.com/fine-wine/offers website "Fine wine offers"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120114418/http://www.bbr.com/fine-wine/offers |date=20 January 2012 }}.</ref> "[[Investment wine]]s" are considered by some to be [[Veblen good]]s: those for which demand increases rather than decreases as their prices rise.
Particular selections such as "Verticals", which span multiple vintages of a specific grape and vineyard, may be highly valued. The most notable was a [[Château d'Yquem#Since 1968|Château d'Yquem]] 135-year vertical containing every vintage from 1860 to 2003 sold for $1.5 million.
The most common wines purchased for investment include those from [[Bordeaux wine|Bordeaux]] and [[Burgundy wine|Burgundy]]; [[cult wine]]s from [[Europe]] and elsewhere; and [[Port wine|vintage port]]. Characteristics of highly collectible wines include:

# A proven track record of holding well over time
# A drinking-window plateau (i.e., the period for maturity and approachability) that is many years long
# A consensus among experts as to the quality of the wines
# Rigorous production methods at every stage, including grape selection and appropriate barrel aging

Investment in fine wine has attracted those who take advantage of their victims' relative ignorance of this wine market sector.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Château Lafake |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/business/2011/06/16/chateau-lafake |access-date=2023-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004234819/https://www.economist.com/business/2011/06/16/chateau-lafake/ |archive-date=2020-10-04 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> Such [[wine fraud]]sters often profit by charging excessively high prices for off-vintage or lower-status wines from well-known wine regions, while claiming that they are offering a sound investment unaffected by [[economic cycle]]s. As with any investment, thorough research is essential to making an informed decision.

== Production ==
{{Main|Winemaking}}
{{See also|List of wine-producing countries|List of wine-producing regions}}
[[File:Grapes Fermenting - John Kosovich Wines.jpg|thumb|Grapes fermenting to make wine in Western Australia]]
{| class="wikitable"
|+'''2014 wine production estimates'''<ref name="FAO636">{{cite web|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/636/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=636 |title=Crops processed |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520105103/http://faostat.fao.org/site/636/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=636 |archive-date=20 May 2011 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO)}}</ref>
! Rank !! Country<br /><small>(with link to wine article)</small> !! Production<br /><small>([[tonnes]])</small>
|-
!1
| {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Italian wine|Italy]] || style="text-align:right;"|4,796,600
|-
!2
| {{flagicon|ESP}} [[Spanish wine|Spain]] || style="text-align:right;"|4,607,850
|-
!3
| {{flagicon|FRA}} [[French wine|France]] || style="text-align:right;"|4,293,466
|-
!4
| {{flagicon|US}} [[American wine|United States]] || style="text-align:right;"|3,300,000
|-
!5
| {{flagicon|PRC}} [[Wine in China|China]] || style="text-align:right;"|1,700,000
|-
!6
| {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Argentine wine|Argentina]] || style="text-align:right;"|1,498,380
|-
!7
| {{flagicon|CHI}} [[Chilean wine|Chile]] || style="text-align:right;"|1,214,000
|-
!8
| {{flagicon|AUS}} [[Australian wine|Australia]] || style="text-align:right;"|1,186,343
|-
!9
| {{flagicon|RSA}} [[South African wine|South Africa]] || style="text-align:right;"|1,146,006
|-
!10
| {{flagicon|GER}} [[German wine|Germany]] || style="text-align:right;"|920,200
|- style="background:whitesmoke;"
!colspan=2|World* || style="text-align:center;"|'''30,806,000'''
|}
<small><nowiki>* May include official, semi-official or estimated data.</nowiki></small>

Wine grapes grow almost exclusively between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the [[equator]]. The world's southernmost vineyards are in the [[Central Otago]] region of New Zealand's [[South Island]] near the [[45th parallel south]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wineoftheweek.com/regions/otago.html |title=New Zealand Wine Regions – Central Otago |access-date=26 June 2008 |last=Courtney |first=Sue |date=16 April 2005 |archive-date=9 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509170629/http://www.wineoftheweek.com/regions/otago.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the northernmost are in [[Flen]], Sweden, just north of the [[59th parallel north]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.beer100.com/history/winehistory.htm |title=Wine History |access-date=26 June 2008 |archive-date=10 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610051515/http://www.beer100.com/history/winehistory.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Exporting countries ===
{{Col-begin|width=80%}}
{{Col-3}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Top ten wine exporting countries in 2022<ref>{{Cite web |title=Wine exports by country worldwide 2022 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/240649/top-wine-exporting-countries-since-2007/ |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=Statista |language=en}}</ref>
! Rank
! style="width:140px;"|Country
! style="width:100px;"|1000 [[tonnes]]
|-
!1
|{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Italian wine|Italy]] || style="text-align:center;"|2,190
|-
!2
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Spanish wine|Spain]] || style="text-align:center;"|2,120
|-
!3
|{{flagicon|FRA}} [[French wine|France]] || style="text-align:center;"|1,400
|-
!4
|{{flagicon|CHI}} [[Chilean wine|Chile]] || style="text-align:center;"|830
|-
!5
|{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Australian wine|Australia]] || style="text-align:center;"|640
|-
!6
|{{flagicon|RSA}} [[South African wine|South Africa]] || style="text-align:center;"|440
|-
!7
|{{flagicon|GER}} [[German wine|Germany]] || style="text-align:center;"|350
|-
!8
|{{flagicon|POR}} [[Portuguese wine|Portugal]] || style="text-align:center;"|330
|-
!9
|{{flagicon|NZL}} [[New Zealand wine|New Zealand]] || style="text-align:center;"|300
|-
!10
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[Wine of the United States|United States]] || style="text-align:center;"|280
|- style="background:whitesmoke;"
!colspan=2|World* || style="text-align:center;"|10,319
|}
<nowiki>* May include official, semi-official or estimated data.</nowiki>
{{Col-3}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ 2013 export market shares<ref name="FAO535">{{cite web|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/535/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=535 |title=Crops and livestock products |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714143437/http://faostat.fao.org/site/535/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=535 |archive-date=14 July 2007 |website=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations (FAO)}}</ref>
! Rank
! style="width:140px;"|Country
! style="width:110px;"|Market share<br /><small>(% of value in US$)</small>
|-
!1
|{{flagicon|FRA}} [[French wine|France]] || style="text-align:center;"|30%
|-
!2
|{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Italian wine|Italy]] || style="text-align:center;"|19%
|-
!3
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Spanish wine|Spain]] || style="text-align:center;"|10%
|-
!4
|{{flagicon|CHI}} [[Chilean wine|Chile]] || style="text-align:center;"|6%
|-
!5
|{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Australian wine|Australia]] || style="text-align:center;"|5%
|-
!6
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[American wine|United States]] || style="text-align:center;"|4%
|-
!7
|{{flagicon|GER}} [[German wine|Germany]] || style="text-align:center;"|4%
|-
!8
|{{flagicon|NZ}} [[New Zealand wine|New Zealand]] || style="text-align:center;"|3%
|-
!9
|{{flagicon|POR}} [[Portuguese wine|Portugal]] || style="text-align:center;"|3%
|-
!10
|{{flagicon|ARG}} [[Argentina wine|Argentina]] || style="text-align:center;"|3%
|}
{{Col-3}}
{{Col-end}}

The UK was the world's largest importer of wine in 2007.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7827713.stm|title=UK tops world wine imports table|date=14 January 2009|publisher=BBC|access-date=28 March 2009|archive-date=22 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090422171120/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7827713.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Consumption==
{{Redirect|Drink wine|the Adele song|I Drink Wine}}
[[File:Wine consumption per person, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Wine consumption per person, 2014<ref>{{cite web |title=Wine consumption per person |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/wine-consumption-per-person |website=Our World in Data |access-date=5 March 2020 |archive-date=16 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316145124/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/wine-consumption-per-person |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
[[File:Wine as a share of total alcohol consumption, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Wine as a share of total alcohol consumption, 2010<ref>{{cite web |title=Wine as a share of total alcohol consumption |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/wine-as-share-alcohol-consumption |website=Our World in Data |access-date=5 March 2020 |archive-date=16 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316145124/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/wine-as-share-alcohol-consumption |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Wine-consumption data from a [[list of countries by alcohol consumption]] measured in liters of pure ethyl alcohol consumed [[per capita]] in a given year, according to the most recent data from the [[World Health Organization]]. The methodology includes persons 15 years of age or older.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_alcohol_report/msbgsruprofiles.pdf |title=Global status report on alcohol and health |publisher=World Health Organization |date=2011 |isbn=978-92-4-156415-1}}</ref> About 40% of individuals above the legal drinking age consider themselves "wine drinkers", which is higher than all other alcoholic beverages combined (34%) and those who do not drink at all (26%).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://lizthachmw.com/tag/wine-statistics-for-2019/|title=Wine Statistics for 2019|website=Dr. Liz Thach, MW|language=en|access-date=2020-04-04|archive-date=13 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513100751/https://lizthachmw.com/tag/wine-statistics-for-2019/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Wine consumption
|-
! style="width:140px;"|Country
! style="width:100px;"|Liters per capita
|-
|{{FRA}} ||  8.14
|-
|{{PRT}} ||  6.65
|-
|{{ITA}} ||  6.38
|-
|{{HRV}} ||  5.80
|-
|{{AND}} ||  5.69
|-
|{{CHE}} ||  5.10
|-
|{{SVN}} ||  5.10
|-
|{{HUN}} ||  4.94
|-
|{{MDA}} ||  4.67
|-
|{{ARG}} ||  4.62
|}

{{Col-2}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Wine vs. beer consumption per capita
|-
! style="width:140px;"|Country
! style="width:100px;"|Wine (l)
! style="width:100px;"|Beer (l)
! style="width:100px;"|Wine/beer ratio
|-
|{{GNQ}} ||  4.18 || 0.45 || style="text-align:right;" |9.29
|-
|{{ITA}} ||  6.38 || 1.73 || style="text-align:right;" |3.69
|-
|{{FRA}} ||  8.14 || 2.31 || style="text-align:right;" |3.52
|-
|{{GTM}} ||  3.92 || 1.12 || style="text-align:right;" |3.50
|-
|{{STP}} ||  3.40 || 1.12 || style="text-align:right;" |3.04
|-
|{{URY}} ||  3.95 || 1.33 || style="text-align:right;" |2.97
|-
|{{TON}} ||  2.29 || 0.89 || style="text-align:right;" |2.57
|-
|{{GRE}} ||  4.51 || 2.20 || style="text-align:right;" |2.05
|-
|{{ARG}} ||  4.62 || 2.49 || style="text-align:right;" |1.86
|-
|{{PRT}} ||  6.65 || 3.75 || style="text-align:right;" |1.77
|}
{{Col-end}}

== Culinary uses ==
{{Further|Wine and food pairing}}
[[File:Réduction du vin rouge.jpg|thumb|[[Reduction (cooking)|Reduction]] of red wine for a sauce by cooking it on a stovetop. It is called a reduction because the heat boils off some of the water, leaving a more concentrated, wine-flavoured sauce.]]

Wine is a popular and important [[drink]] that accompanies and enhances a wide range of cuisines, from the simple and traditional [[stew]]s to the most sophisticated and complex [[haute cuisine]]s. Wine is often served with dinner. Sweet [[dessert wine]]s may be served with the [[dessert]] course. In fine restaurants in Western countries, wine typically accompanies dinner. At a restaurant, patrons are helped to make good food-wine pairings by the restaurant's [[sommelier]] or wine waiter. Individuals dining at home may use wine guides to help make food–wine pairings. Wine is also drunk without the accompaniment of a meal in [[wine bar]]s or with a selection of cheeses (at a wine and cheese party). Wines are also used as a theme for organizing various events such as [[festival]]s around the world; the city of [[Kuopio]] in [[North Savonia]], [[Finland]] is known for its annual Kuopio Wine Festivals (''Kuopion viinijuhlat'').<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kuopiowinefestival.fi/|title=Kuopion Viinijuhlat » Kuopio Wine Festival|publisher=Kuopio Wine Festival|access-date=2020-07-25|language=fi|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726025917/https://kuopiowinefestival.fi/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but as a flavor agent, primarily in [[stock (food)|stocks]] and [[braising]], since its acidity lends balance to rich [[Basic taste#Savouriness|savory]] or [[sweet]] dishes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/features/6-secrets-of-cooking-with-wine|title=6 Secrets of Cooking With Wine|website=WebMD|access-date=4 May 2020|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614071208/https://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/features/6-secrets-of-cooking-with-wine|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Wine sauce]] is an example of a culinary sauce that uses wine as a primary ingredient.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bHp1GJk8IMcC&pg=PA15 | title=Parker's Wine Buyer's Guide, 7th Edition | publisher=Simon and Schuster | author=Parker, Robert M. | year=2008 | page=15 | isbn=978-1-4391-3997-4}}</ref> Natural wines may exhibit a broad range of alcohol content, from below 9% to above 16% [[Alcohol by volume|ABV]], with most wines being in the 12.5–14.5% range.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jancis Robinson |title=The Oxford Companion to Wine |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc |url-access=registration |edition=3rd |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-860990-2 }} See ''alcoholic strength'' at p. 10.</ref> [[Fortified wine]]s (usually with brandy) may contain 20% alcohol or more.

== Religious significance ==
{{See also|Religion and alcohol|Wine in religious communities of the Middle East}}

=== Ancient religions ===
The use of wine in ancient [[Near Eastern]] and [[Ancient Egyptian]] religious ceremonies was common. [[Libation]]s often included wine, and the [[Dionysian Mysteries|religious mysteries]] of Dionysus used wine as a sacramental [[entheogen]] to induce a mind-altering state.

=== Judaism ===
{{Main|Kosher wine}}
{{rquote|right|Baruch atah Hashem (Ado-nai) Eloheinu melech ha-olam, boray p'ree hagafen – Praised be the Lord, our God, King of the universe, Creator of the fruit of the vine.|The blessing over wine said before consuming the drink.}}
Wine is an integral part of [[halakha|Jewish laws and traditions]]. The ''[[Kiddush]]'' is a blessing recited over wine or grape juice to sanctify the [[Shabbat]]. On Pesach ([[Passover]]) during the Seder, it is a [[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbinic]] obligation of adults to drink four cups of wine.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewfaq.org/holidaya.htm |title=Pesach: Passover |last=Rich |first=Tracey R |work=Judaism 101 |access-date=24 April 2006 |archive-date=2 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202135231/http://www.jewfaq.org/holidaya.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> In the [[Tabernacle (Judaism)|Tabernacle]] and in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service.<ref>{{cite book |last=Neusner |first=Jacob |title=The Halakhah: An Encyclopaedia of the Law of Judaism |publisher=BRILL |year=2000 |location=Boston, Massachusetts |page=[https://archive.org/details/theologyofth_neus_2001_000_7080715/page/n137 82] |url=https://archive.org/details/theologyofth_neus_2001_000_7080715 |url-access=registration |isbn=978-90-04-11617-7}}</ref> Note that this does not mean that wine is a symbol of blood, a common misconception that contributes to the Christian beliefs of the [[blood libel]].
"It has been one of history's cruel ironies that the blood libel—accusations against Jews using the blood of murdered gentile children for the making of wine and matzot—became the false pretext for numerous [[pogrom]]s. And due to the danger, those who live in a place where blood libels occur are [[Halacha|halachically]] exempted from using red wine, lest it be seized as "evidence" against them."<ref name=reWineBloodlibel>{{cite web|last=Rutman |first=Rabbi Yisrael |title=Pesach: What We Eat and Why We Eat It |url=http://www.torah.org/features/holydays/passover/pesacheat.html |publisher=Project Genesis Inc. |access-date=14 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509103442/http://torah.org/features/holydays/passover/pesacheat.html |archive-date=9 May 2013 }}</ref>

=== Christianity ===
[[File:The Marriage at Cana - Decani.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Jesus]] making wine from water in ''[[Marriage at Cana|The Marriage at Cana]]'', a 14th-century [[fresco]] from the [[Visoki Dečani monastery]]]]{{Main|Christian views on alcohol|Alcohol in the Bible}}In [[Christianity]], wine is used in a sacred rite called the [[Eucharist]], which originates in the [[Gospel]] account of the [[Last Supper]] ([[Gospel of Luke]] 22:19) describing [[Jesus]] sharing bread and wine with his disciples and commanding them to "do this in remembrance of me." Beliefs about the nature of the Eucharist vary among [[Christian denomination|denominations]] (see [[Eucharistic theologies contrasted]]).

While some Christians consider the use of wine from the grape as essential for the validity of the [[sacrament]], many Protestants also allow (or require) [[pasteurization|pasteurized]] grape juice as a substitute. Wine was used in Eucharistic rites by all Protestant groups until an alternative arose in the late 19th century. [[Methodism|Methodist]] [[dentist]] and [[prohibition]]ist [[Thomas Bramwell Welch]] applied new pasteurization techniques to stop the natural fermentation process of [[grape juice]]. Some Christians who were part of the growing [[temperance movement]] pressed for a switch from wine to grape juice, and the substitution spread quickly over much of the United States, as well as to other countries to a lesser degree.<ref>{{cite news |title=Almost Like Wine |date=3 September 1956 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,824374,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071118114338/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,824374,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 November 2007 |work=[[Time Magazine]] |access-date=26 June 2008}}</ref> There remains an ongoing debate between some American [[Protestant]] denominations as to whether wine can and should be used for the Eucharist or allowed as an ordinary drink, with Catholics and some mainline Protestants allowing wine drinking in moderation, and some conservative Protestant groups opposing consumption of alcohol altogether.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}

The earliest viticulture tradition in the Southwestern United States starts with [[sacramental wine]], beginning in the 1600s, with Christian friars and monks producing [[New Mexico wine]].<ref>{{cite book | last1=Birchell | first1=D. B. | last2=Steel | first2=G. | title=New Mexico Wine: An Enchanting History | publisher=American Palate | series=American Palate Series | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-60949-643-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5f0kvgAACAAJ | language=it | access-date=15 November 2019 }}</ref>

=== Islam ===
[[File:Mei.jpg|thumb|upright|All alcohol is prohibited under [[Sharia|Islamic law]], although there has been a long tradition of drinking wine in some Islamic areas, especially in [[Iran]].]]
{{Main|Islam and alcohol}}

Alcoholic drinks, including wine, are forbidden under most interpretations of [[Sharia|Islamic law]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Frances |last=Harrison |title=Alcohol fatwa sparks controversy |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7342425.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=11 April 2008 |access-date=31 July 2010 |archive-date=12 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110512181043/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7342425.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> In many Muslim countries, possession or consumption of alcoholic drinks carry legal penalties. [[Iran]] had previously had [[Viticulture in Iran|a thriving wine industry]] that disappeared after the [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution]] in 1979.<ref>{{cite news |first=Robert |last=Tait |title=End of the vine |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/oct/12/worlddispatch.iran |work=The Guardian |date=12 October 2005 |access-date=26 June 2008 |location=London |archive-date=29 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829184544/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/oct/12/worlddispatch.iran |url-status=live }}</ref> In [[Greater Persia]], ''[[Persian wine|mey]]'' (Persian wine) was a central theme of [[poetry]] for more than a thousand years, long before the advent of Islam. Some [[Alevi]] sects – one of the two main branches of Islam in Turkey (the other being [[Sunni Islam]]) – use wine in their religious services.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}

Certain exceptions to the ban on alcohol apply. Alcohol derived from a source other than the grape (or its byproducts) and the date<ref>Sahih Muslim Book 043, Hadith Number 7186.</ref> is allowed in "very small quantities" (loosely defined as a quantity that does not cause intoxication) under the Sunni [[Hanafi]] ''madhab'', for specific purposes (such as medicines), where the goal is not intoxication. However, modern Hanafi scholars regard alcohol consumption as totally forbidden.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/perfalc.htm |title=Alcohol based Perfumes, Deodrants and Creams, Mufti Muhammad ibn Adam, Darul Iftaa, Leicester |publisher=Central-mosque.com |access-date=17 May 2014 |archive-date=13 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213042003/http://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/perfalc.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Packaging ==
{{See also|Cork (material)|Closure (bottle)|Alternative wine closure|Wine bottle|Box wine|Canned wine|Screw cap (wine)}}
[[File:Corks019.jpg|thumb|upright|Assorted [[wine cork]]s]]

Most wines are sold in [[wine bottle|glass bottles]] and sealed with [[cork (material)|corks]] (50% of which come from [[Portugal]]).<ref>{{Cite web |last=J. L. CALHEIROS E MENESES |date=2014-09-14 |title=The cork industry in Portugal |url=http://people.uwec.edu/ivogeler/Travel/Portugal/cork-article2.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914040935/http://people.uwec.edu/ivogeler/Travel/Portugal/cork-article2.htm |access-date=2023-09-23|archive-date=14 September 2014 }}</ref> An increasing number of wine producers have been using [[Alternative wine closure|alternative closures]] such as [[Screw cap (wine)|screwcaps]] and synthetic [[plastic]] "corks". Although alternative closures are less expensive and prevent [[cork taint]], they have been blamed for such problems as excessive [[redox|reduction]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wirth |first1=J. |last2=Caillé |first2=S. |last3=Souquet |first3=J. M. |last4=Samson |first4=A. |last5=Dieval |first5=J. B. |last6=Vidal |first6=S. |last7=Fulcrand |first7=H. |last8=Cheynier |first8=V. |date=2012-06-15 |title=Impact of post-bottling oxygen exposure on the sensory characteristics and phenolic composition of Grenache rosé wines |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308814611017742 |journal=Food Chemistry |series=6th International Conference on Water in Food |volume=132 |issue=4 |pages=1861–1871 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.12.019 |issn=0308-8146}}</ref>

Some wines are packaged in thick plastic bags within [[corrugated fiberboard]] boxes, and are called "[[box wine]]s", or "cask wine". Tucked inside the package is a tap affixed to the [[bag in box]], or bladder, that is later extended by the consumer for serving the contents. Box wine can stay acceptably fresh for up to a month after opening because the bladder collapses as wine is dispensed, limiting contact with air and, thus, slowing the rate of oxidation. In contrast, bottled wine [[oxidize]]s more rapidly after opening because of the increasing ratio of air to wine as the contents are dispensed; it can degrade considerably in a few days. [[Canned wine]] is one of the fastest-growing forms of alternative wine packaging on the market.<ref name="cans">{{cite web |title=Canned Wine Comes of Age |language=en |website=Wine Spectator |date=22 May 2019 |author=Augustus Weed |url=https://www.winespectator.com/articles/canned-wine-comes-of-age |access-date=23 May 2019 |archive-date=23 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190523013513/https://www.winespectator.com/articles/canned-wine-comes-of-age |url-status=live }}</ref>

Environmental considerations of wine packaging reveal the benefits and drawbacks of both bottled and box wines. The glass used to make bottles is a nontoxic, naturally occurring substance that is completely recyclable, whereas the plastics used for box-wine containers are typically much less environmentally friendly. However, wine-bottle manufacturers have been cited for [[Clean Air Act (United States)|Clean Air Act]] violations. A ''New York Times'' editorial suggested that box wine, being lighter in package weight, has a reduced [[carbon footprint]] from its distribution; however, box-wine plastics, even though possibly recyclable, can be more labor-intensive (and therefore expensive) to process than glass bottles. In addition, while a wine box is recyclable, its plastic bladder most likely is not.<ref>{{cite web|last=Muzaurieta |first=Annie Bell |website=thedailygreen.com |date=1 October 2008 |url=http://www.thedailygreen.com/healthy-eating/eat-safe/glass-wine-bottles-environment-44100108 |title=Holy Hangover! Wine Bottles Cause Air Pollution |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201191511/http://www.thedailygreen.com/healthy-eating/eat-safe/glass-wine-bottles-environment-44100108 |archive-date=1 December 2008 }}</ref> Some people are drawn to canned wine due to its portability and recyclable packaging.<ref name="cans" />

Some wine is sold in [[stainless steel]] kegs and is referred to as [[wine on tap]].

== Storage ==
{{Main|Storage of wine}}

[[File:Wine Barrels.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Oak]] [[wine barrel]]s]]

[[Wine cellar]]s, or wine rooms, if they are above-ground, are places designed specifically for the storage and aging of wine. Fine restaurants and some private homes have wine cellars. In an active wine cellar, temperature and humidity are maintained by a climate-control system. Passive wine cellars are not climate-controlled, and so must be carefully located. Because wine is a natural, perishable food product, all types—including red, white, sparkling, and fortified—can spoil when exposed to heat, light, vibration or fluctuations in temperature and humidity. When properly stored, wines can maintain their quality and in some cases improve in aroma, flavor, and complexity as they age. Some wine experts contend that the optimal temperature for aging wine is {{convert|13|C|F}},<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-01-11 |title=On TV : Simply Wine with Andrea Immer : Storing Wine : Fine Living |url=http://www.fineliving.com/fine/simply_wine/article/0,,fine_15098_2518659,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111025534/http://www.fineliving.com/fine/simply_wine/article/0,,fine_15098_2518659,00.html |access-date=2023-09-23|archive-date=11 January 2010 }}</ref> others {{convert|15|C|F}}.<ref>{{cite web|website=maridajesgourmet.com |url=http://www.maridajesgourmet.com/vinos/vino/vinocuidadovino/temperatura.html |title=Storing Wine Temperature |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708100910/http://www.maridajesgourmet.com/vinos/vino/vinocuidadovino/temperatura.html |archive-date=8 July 2009 }}</ref>

Wine refrigerators offer a smaller alternative to wine cellars and are available in capacities ranging from small, 16-bottle units to furniture-quality pieces that can contain 500 bottles. Wine refrigerators are not ideal for aging, but rather serve to chill wine to the proper temperature for drinking. These refrigerators keep the humidity low (usually under 50%), below the optimal humidity of 50% to 70%. Lower humidity levels can dry out corks over time, allowing oxygen to enter the bottle, which reduces the wine's quality through oxidation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.intowine.com/wine-fridges-and-wine-cabinets|title=Wine Fridges and Wine Cabinets|date=20 August 2007|website=IntoWine|access-date=4 May 2020|archive-date=11 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200311133158/https://www.intowine.com/wine-fridges-and-wine-cabinets|url-status=live}}</ref> While some types of alcohol are sometimes stored in the freezer, such as [[vodka]], it is not possible to safely freeze wine in the bottle, as there is insufficient room for it to expand as it freezes and the bottle will usually crack. Certain shapes of bottle may allow the cork to be pushed out by the ice, but if the bottle is frozen on its side, the wine in the narrower neck will invariably freeze first, preventing this.

== Professions ==
There are a large number of occupations and professions that are part of the wine industry, ranging from the individuals who grow the grapes, prepare the wine, bottle it, sell it, assess it, market it and finally make recommendations to clients and serve the wine.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Related professions
!Name
!Description
|-
|Cellar master
|A person in charge of a wine cellar
|-
|[[Cooper (profession)|Cooper]]
|A craftsperson of wooden barrels and casks. A [[Cooper (profession)|cooperage]] is a facility that produces such casks
|-
|[[Négociant]]
|A wine merchant who purchases the product of smaller growers or wine-makers to sell them under its own name
|-
|[[Oenologist]]
|A wine scientist or [[Wine chemistry|wine chemist]]; a student of [[oenology]]. In the 2000s, BSc degrees in oenology and [[viticulture]] are available. A wine-maker may be trained as an oenologist, but often hires one as a consultant
|-
|[[Sommelier]]
|Also called a "wine steward", this is a specialist wine expert in charge of developing a restaurant's [[wine list]], educating the staff about wine, and assisting customers with their selections (especially food–wine pairings)
|-
|[[Vintner]] or winemaker
|A wine producer; a person who makes wine
|-
|[[Viticulturist]]
|A specialist in the science of grapevines; a manager of vineyard pruning, [[irrigation (wine)|irrigation]], and pest control
|-
|[[Wine critic]]
|A wine expert and journalist who tastes and reviews wines for books and magazines
|-
|[[Wine taster]]
|A wine expert who tastes wines to ascertain their quality and flavour
|-
|Wine waiter
|A restaurant or [[wine bar]] [[waiting staff|server]] with a basic- to mid-level knowledge of wine and food–wine pairings
|}

== Forgery and manipulation ==
{{Main|Wine fraud}}
{{See also|List of food contamination incidents}}

Incidents of fraud, such as mislabeling the origin or quality of wines, have resulted in regulations on labeling. "Wine scandals" that have received media attention include:
* The [[1985 diethylene glycol wine scandal]], in which [[diethylene glycol]] was used as a sweetener in some Austrian wines.
* [[Wine fraud#Hazardous materials|In 1986]], [[methanol]] (a toxic type of alcohol) was used to alter certain wines manufactured in Italy.
* In 2008, some Italian wines were found to include [[sulfuric acid]] and [[hydrochloric acid]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-04-04 |title=Italian wine under investigation for adulteration |url=https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20080404/world/italian-wine-under-investigation-for-adulteration.202817 |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=Times of Malta |language=en-gb}}</ref>
* In 2010, some Chinese red wines were found to be adulterated, and as a consequence China's Hebei province shut down nearly 30 wineries.<ref>{{cite web |author=Xinhua and Staff Reporter |date=24 December 2010 |title=Chinese Government Shuts Down Fake Wine Producers |url=http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?cid=1102&MainCatID=11&id=20101224000156 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140102200621/http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?cid=1102&MainCatID=11&id=20101224000156 |archive-date=2 January 2014 |access-date=17 May 2014 |publisher=Wantchinatimes.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=27 December 2010 |title=Adulterated Chinese wine seized |url=http://drinkingny.wordpress.com/2010/12/27/%E2%80%A2-adulterated-chinese-wine-seized/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140104163826/http://drinkingny.wordpress.com/2010/12/27/%e2%80%a2-adulterated-chinese-wine-seized/ |archive-date=4 January 2014 |access-date=17 May 2014 |publisher=Drinkingny.wordpress.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=16 March 2018 |title=– Massive Côte du Rhône fine-wine fraud uncovered by French police |newspaper=The Local France |url=https://www.thelocal.fr/20180316/massive-cte-du-rhne-fine-wine-fraud-smashed-by-french-police |url-status=live |access-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426174323/https://www.thelocal.fr/20180316/massive-cte-du-rhne-fine-wine-fraud-smashed-by-french-police |archive-date=26 April 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Paris |first1=Charles Bremner |title=Vintage scam: 66 million bottles of French wine said to be fake |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/vintage-scam-66-million-bottles-of-french-wine-said-to-be-fake-nwrswg0vp |url-status=live |access-date=26 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426183210/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/vintage-scam-66-million-bottles-of-french-wine-said-to-be-fake-nwrswg0vp |archive-date=26 April 2021}}</ref>

== Health effects ==

{{See also|Health effects of wine}}
{{Further|Red wine headache}}
{{nutritionalvalue
| name = Red table wine
| kJ = 355
| fat = 0.0 g
| protein = 0.1 g
| carbs = 2.6 g
| sugars = 0.6 g
| alcohol = 10.6 g
| source_usda = 1
| noRDA = 1
| right = 1
| note = 10.6&nbsp;g alcohol is 13%vol.<br />100&nbsp;g wine is approximately 100&nbsp;ml (3.4&nbsp;fl oz.)<br />Sugar and alcohol content can vary.
}}

=== Short-term ===
{{Main|Short-term effects of alcohol consumption}}

Wine contains [[ethyl alcohol]], the chemical in [[beer]] and [[distilled spirits]]. The effects of wine depend on the amount consumed, the span of time over which consumption occurs, and the amount of alcohol in the wine, among other factors. Drinking enough to reach a [[blood alcohol concentration]] (BAC) of 0.03%-0.12% may cause an overall improvement in mood, increase self-confidence and sociability, decrease anxiety, [[Alcohol flush reaction|flushing of the face]], and impair judgment and fine [[motor coordination]]. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes [[lethargy]], [[sedation]], balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g. slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes [[stupor]], unconsciousness, [[anterograde amnesia]], vomiting, and death may occur due to [[respiratory depression]] and [[pulmonary aspiration|inhalation of vomit]] during unconsciousness. A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes [[coma]], life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal [[alcohol poisoning]]. The operation of vehicles or machinery while drunk can increase the risk of accident, and many countries have laws against [[drinking and driving]]. The social context and quality of wine can affect the mood and emotions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danner |first1=Lukas |last2=Ristic |first2=Renata |last3=Johnson |first3=Trent E |last4=Meiselman |first4=Herbert L |last5=Hoek |first5=Annet C |date=Nov 2016 |title=Context and wine quality effects on consumers' mood, emotions, liking and willingness to pay for Australian Shiraz wines |journal=Food Research International |volume=89 |issue=Pt 1 |pages=254–265 |doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2016.08.006 |pmid=28460912}}</ref>

=== Long-term ===
{{See also|Long-term effects of alcohol consumption}}
[[File:Possible long-term effects of ethanol.svg|thumb|left|Most significant of the possible [[Long-term effects of alcohol consumption|long-term effects]] of [[ethanol]], one of the constituents of wine. Consumption of alcohol by pregnant mothers may result in [[fetal alcohol spectrum disorder]]s.]]
The main active ingredient of wine is ethanol. A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found that moderate ethanol consumption brought no mortality benefit compared with lifetime abstention from ethanol consumption.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Stockwell T, Zhao J, Panwar S, Roemer A, Naimi T, Chikritzhs T |date=March 2016 |title=Do "Moderate" Drinkers Have Reduced Mortality Risk? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Alcohol Consumption and All-Cause Mortality |journal=J Stud Alcohol Drugs |volume=77 |issue=2 |pages=185–98 |doi=10.15288/jsad.2016.77.185 |pmc=4803651 |pmid=26997174}}</ref> A systematic analysis of data from the Global Burden of Disease study found that consumption of ethanol [[Alcohol and cancer|increases the risk of cancer]] and increases the risk of all-cause mortality, and that the most healthful dose of ethanol is zero consumption.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Griswold |first1=Max G. |last2=Fullman |first2=Nancy |last3=Hawley |first3=Caitlin |last4=Arian |first4=Nicholas |last5=Zimsen |first5=Stephanie R M. |last6=Tymeson |first6=Hayley D. |last7=Venkateswaran |first7=Vidhya |last8=Tapp |first8=Austin Douglas |last9=Forouzanfar |first9=Mohammad H. |last10=Salama |first10=Joseph S. |last11=Abate |first11=Kalkidan Hassen |last12=Abate |first12=Degu |last13=Abay |first13=Solomon M. |last14=Abbafati |first14=Cristiana |last15=Abdulkader |first15=Rizwan Suliankatchi |display-authors=29 |date=August 2018 |title=Alcohol use and burden for 195 countries and territories, 1990-2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 |journal=Lancet |volume=392 |issue=10152 |pages=1015–1035 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31310-2 |pmc=6148333 |pmid=30146330 |last16=Abebe |first16=Zegeye |last17=Aboyans |first17=Victor |last18=Abrar |first18=Mohammed Mehdi |last19=Acharya |first19=Pawan |last20=Adetokunboh |first20=Olatunji O. |last21=Adhikari |first21=Tara Ballav |last22=Adsuar |first22=Jose C. |last23=Afarideh |first23=Mohsen |last24=Agardh |first24=Emilie Elisabet |last25=Agarwal |first25=Gina |last26=Aghayan |first26=Sargis Aghasi |last27=Agrawal |first27=Sutapa |last28=Ahmed |first28=Muktar Beshir |last29=Akibu |first29=Mohammed |last30=Akinyemiju |first30=Tomi}}</ref> Some studies have concluded that drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink daily in women and two drinks daily in men) is associated with a decreased risk of [[heart disease]], [[stroke]], [[diabetes mellitus]], and early death.<ref name="Kee2014">{{cite journal |last1=O'Keefe |first1=JH |last2=Bhatti |first2=SK |last3=Bajwa |first3=A |last4=DiNicolantonio |first4=JJ |last5=Lavie |first5=CJ |date=March 2014 |title=Alcohol and cardiovascular health: the dose makes the poison...or the remedy. |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=382–93 |doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2013.11.005 |pmid=24582196 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ethanol consumption increases the risk of heart disease, [[high blood pressure]], [[atrial fibrillation]], and [[stroke]]. Some studies that reported benefits of moderate ethanol consumption erred by lumping former drinkers and life-long abstainers into a single group of nondrinkers, hiding the health benefits of life-long abstention from ethanol.<ref name="Kee2014" /> Risk is greater in younger people due to [[binge drinking]] which may result in violence or accidents.<ref name="Kee2014" /> About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) annually are due to ethanol use.<ref name="NIH2015Stats">{{cite web |title=Alcohol Facts and Statistics |url=http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518081638/http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/alcohol-health/overview-alcohol-consumption/alcohol-facts-and-statistics |archive-date=18 May 2015 |access-date=9 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Streppel |first1=M. T. |last2=Ocke |first2=M. C. |last3=Boshuizen |first3=H. C. |last4=Kok |first4=F. J. |last5=Kromhout |first5=D. |year=2009 |title=Long-term wine consumption is related to cardiovascular mortality and life expectancy independently of moderate alcohol intake: the Zutphen Study |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00477884/document |url-status=live |journal=Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health |volume=63 |issue=7 |pages=534–540 |doi=10.1136/jech.2008.082198 |pmid=19406740 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901083937/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00477884/document |archive-date=1 September 2019 |access-date=1 September 2019 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Lindberg">{{cite journal |last=Lindberg |first=Matthew L. |author2=Ezra A. Amsterdam |year=2008 |title=Alcohol, wine, and cardiovascular health |journal=Clinical Cardiology |volume=31 |issue=8 |pages=347–51 |doi=10.1002/clc.20263 |pmc=6653665 |pmid=18727003}}</ref>

[[Alcoholism|Alcohol use disorder]] is the inability to stop or control alcohol use despite harmful consequences to health, job, or relationships; alternative terms include alcoholism, alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, or alcohol addiction.<ref>{{cite web |title=Understanding Alcohol Use Disorder {{!}} National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) |url=https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets/understanding-alcohol-use-disorder |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220721082849/https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/brochures-and-fact-sheets/understanding-alcohol-use-disorder |archive-date=21 July 2022 |access-date=10 September 2022 |website=www.niaaa.nih.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Jill Littrell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2k57AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA55 |title=Understanding and Treating Alcoholism Volume I: An Empirically Based Clinician's Handbook for the Treatment of Alcoholism: Volume II: Biological, Psychological, and Social Aspects of Alcohol Consumption and Abuse |date=2014 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |isbn=978-1-317-78314-5 |location=Hoboken. |page=55 |quote=The World Health Organization defines alcoholism as any drinking which results in problems}}</ref><ref name="NIH2003">{{cite journal |last1=Hasin |first1=Deborah |date=December 2003 |title=Classification of Alcohol Use Disorders |url=http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh27-1/5-17.htm |url-status=live |journal=Niaaa.nih.gov |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=5–17 |pmc=6676702 |pmid=15301396 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150318014903/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh27-1/5-17.htm |archive-date=18 March 2015 |access-date=28 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="NIH2013">{{cite web |date=November 2013 |title=Alcohol Use Disorder: A Comparison Between DSM–IV and DSM–5 |url=http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/dsmfactsheet/dsmfact.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518080640/http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/dsmfactsheet/dsmfact.htm |archive-date=18 May 2015 |access-date=9 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Schu2014">{{cite journal |last1=Schuckit |first1=MA |date=27 November 2014 |title=Recognition and management of withdrawal delirium (delirium tremens). |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/08b9z9th |url-status=live |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |volume=371 |issue=22 |pages=2109–13 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1407298 |pmid=25427113 |s2cid=205116954 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213032901/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/08b9z9th |archive-date=13 February 2020 |access-date=26 June 2019}}</ref> and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States.<ref name="Kee2014" /> No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine.<ref name="Kee2014" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Alcohol and Heart Health |url=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/NutritionCenter/HealthyEating/Alcohol-and-Heart-Health_UCM_305173_Article.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160119121521/http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/NutritionCenter/HealthyEating/Alcohol-and-Heart-Health_UCM_305173_Article.jsp |archive-date=19 January 2016 |publisher=American Heart Association}}</ref>

Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause [[liver cirrhosis]] and [[alcoholism]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |title=General Information on Alcohol Use and Health |url=https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/quickstats/general_info.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918004654/http://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/quickstats/general_info.htm |archive-date=18 September 2008 |access-date=26 June 2008}}</ref> The [[American Heart Association]] "cautions people NOT to start drinking ... if they do not already drink alcohol. Consult your doctor on the benefits and risks of consuming alcohol in moderation."<ref>{{cite web |author=American Heart Association |title=Alcohol, Wine and Cardiovascular Disease |url=http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4422 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704110717/http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4422 |archive-date=4 July 2008 |access-date=26 June 2008}}</ref>

Although red wine contains more of the [[stilbene]] [[resveratrol]] and of other polyphenols than white wine, the evidence for a cardiac health benefit is of poor quality and at most, the benefit is trivial.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zeraattalab-Motlagh |first1=Sheida |last2=Jayedi |first2=Ahmad |last3=Shab-Bidar |first3=Sakineh |date=8 November 2021 |title=The effects of resveratrol supplementation in patients with type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=114 |issue=5 |pages=1675–1685 |doi=10.1093/ajcn/nqab250 |pmid=34320173 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barbería-Latasa |first1=María |last2=Gea |first2=Alfredo |last3=Martínez-González |first3=Miguel A. |date=7 May 2022 |title=Alcohol, Drinking Pattern, and Chronic Disease |journal=Nutrients |volume=14 |issue=9 |pages=1954 |doi=10.3390/nu14091954 |pmc=9100270 |pmid=35565924 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tomé-Carneiro |first1=J |last2=Gonzálvez |first2=M |last3=Larrosa |first3=M |last4=Yáñez-Gascón |first4=MJ |last5=García-Almagro |first5=FJ |last6=Ruiz-Ros |first6=JA |last7=Tomás-Barberán |first7=FA |last8=García-Conesa |first8=MT |last9=Espín |first9=JC |date=July 2013 |title=Resveratrol in primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a dietary and clinical perspective. |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1290 |issue=1 |pages=37–51 |bibcode=2013NYASA1290...37T |doi=10.1111/nyas.12150 |pmid=23855464 |s2cid=206223647}}</ref> Grape skins naturally produce resveratrol in response to fungal infection, including exposure to yeast during [[Fermentation (wine)|fermentation]]. White wine generally contains lower levels of the chemical as it has minimal contact with grape skins during this process.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frémont |first=Lucie |date=January 2000 |title=Biological effects of resveratrol |journal=Life Sciences |volume=66 |issue=8 |pages=663–673 |doi=10.1016/S0024-3205(99)00410-5 |pmid=10680575}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Wine}}
* [[Outline of wine]]
* [[Glossary of wine terms]]
* [[Classification of wine]]
* [[Winemaking]]
* [[List of grape varieties]]
* [[Health effects of wine]]
* [[Storage of wine]]
* [[Maceration (wine)]]
* [[Pressing (wine)]]
* [[Vidal blanc]]
* [[Hybrid grape]]
* [[Wine warehouses of Bercy]]
* [[Blue wine]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Colman|first=Tyler|title=Wine Politics: How Governments, Environmentalists, Mobsters, and Critics Influence the Wines We Drink|url={{GBurl|id=vYMhU_vwl2oC}}|year=2008|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25521-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Dominé|first=André|title=Wine|year=2001|publisher=Könemann|location=Cologne|isbn=3-8290-4856-4}}
* {{cite book | last = Foulkes | first = Christopher | year = 2001 | title = Larousse Encyclopedia of Wine | publisher = Larousse | isbn = 978-2-03-585013-3 }}
* {{cite book | title = Hugh Johnson's Wine Companion | author-link = Hugh Johnson (wine writer) | last = Johnson | first = Hugh | publisher = Mitchell Beazley | edition = 5th | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-1-84000-704-6}}
* {{cite book | title = Wine for Dummies | last = McCarthy | first = Ed | author2 = Mary Ewing-Mulligan | author3 = Piero Antinori | publisher = HarperCollins | isbn = 978-0-470-04579-4 | year = 2006 | url = https://archive.org/details/winefordummiesfo00edmc }}
* {{cite book | title = The Wine Bible | last = MacNeil | first = Karen | publisher = Workman | isbn = 978-1-56305-434-1 | year = 2001 | url = https://archive.org/details/winebible00kare }}
* {{cite book | title = Oldman's Guide to Outsmarting Wine | author-link = Mark Oldman | first = Mark| last = Oldman| publisher = Penguin | isbn = 978-0-14-200492-0 | year = 2004 }}
* {{cite book | title = Parker's Wine Buyer's Guide | author-link = Robert M. Parker | first = Robert| last = Parker| publisher = Simon and Schuster | isbn = 978-0-7432-7198-1 | year = 2008 }}
* {{cite book | title = Planet Wine: A Grape by Grape Visual Guide to the Contemporary Wine World | first = Stuart | last = Pigott | publisher = Mitchell Beazley | isbn = 978-1-84000-776-3 | year = 2004 }}
* {{cite book | title = The Oxford Companion to Wine | edition = 3rd | author-link = Jancis Robinson | last = Robinson | first = Jancis | location = Oxford | publisher = OUP | isbn = 978-0-19-860990-2 | year = 2006 | url = https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc }}
* {{cite book|author=Simpson, James |title=Creating Wine: The Emergence of a World Industry, 1840–1914|url={{GBurl|id=vAqWNLQkkwUC}} |year=2011|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-3888-2}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20120402080332/http://eh.net/book_reviews/creating-wine-emergence-world-industry-1840-1914 online review]
* {{cite book | title = Windows on the World Complete Wine Course | last = Zraly |first = Kevin | publisher = Sterling | isbn = 978-1-4027-3928-6 | year = 2006 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=yes}}
* [https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/page/2008/sep/04/1 ''The Guardian'' & ''Observer'' Guide to Wine]

{{Wines}}
{{Wine by country}}
{{viticulture}}
{{Alcoholic beverages}}
{{Ancient anaesthesia}}
{{Portal bar|Drink|Beer|Wine|Coffee}}
{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Alcoholic drinks]]
[[Category:Fermented drinks]]
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