Ghetto benches: Difference between revisions
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===Attempts to legalize segregated seating=== |
===Attempts to legalize segregated seating=== |
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For the first time ghetto benches were officially sanctioned in December 1935 at the [[Lwów Polytechnic]].<ref name="Melzer72"/> Following several violent attacks against Jewish students, school officials ordered them so sit in separate sections, under threat of expulsion .<ref name="Rabinowicz"/> Various penalties were imposed upon those who stayed away from the classes in protest against segregated seating.<ref name="Melzer73"/> |
For the first time ghetto benches were officially sanctioned in December 1935 at the [[Lwów Polytechnic]].<ref name="Melzer72"/> Following several violent attacks against Jewish students, school officials ordered them so sit in separate sections, under threat of expulsion .<ref name="Rabinowicz"/> Various penalties were imposed upon those who stayed away from the classes in protest against segregated seating.<ref name="Melzer73"/> This move to legalize ghetto benches was contested by Jewish community seeing it as a dangerous precedent. Ghetto benches were criticized by Jewish delegates to the [[Seym]]. In January 1936 a delegation of representatives of Jewish community of Lwów met Poland's Education Minister who promised to discuss the issue with school administration and in February 1936 ghetto bench order was canceled by the Academic Senate of Lwów Polytechnic.<ref name="Melzer73"> Melzer, p.73</ref> |
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This move to legalize ghetto benches was contested by Jewish community seeing it as a dangerous precedent. Ghetto benches were criticized by Jewish delegates to the [[Seym]]. In January 1936 a delegation of representatives of Jewish community of Lwów met Poland's Education Minister who promised to discuss the issue with school administration and in February 1936 ghetto bench order was canceled by the Academic Senate of Lwów Polytechnic.<ref name="Melzer73"> Melzer, p.73</ref> |
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===Official sanction of ghetto benches=== |
===Official sanction of ghetto benches=== |
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| ⚫ | This setback for segregationist cause did not stop the attempts to establish ghetto benches in Polish universities. The demand for segregated seating was raised by [[OZON]]-led [[Young Poland League]],<ref name="Melzer74"> Melzer, p.74</ref> [[All-Polish Youth]] and other nationalist youth organizations.<ref name="Michlic"/> The extreme ethno-nationalists won their campaign for ghetto benches in 1937 when by Ministry decision universities were granted the right to regulate the seating of Polish and Jewish students.<ref name="Michlic"/> On October 5, 1937 the Rector of [[Warsaw Polytechnic]] ordered the establishment of the institution of ghetto benches in the lecture halls.<ref name="Rabinowicz"/> Within few days similar orders were given in other. universities of Poland <ref name="Melzer76"> Melzer, p.76</ref> Some Polish professors (for example, [[Marceli Handelsman]], [[Stanisław Ossowski]], [[Tadeusz Kotarbiński]]) criticized the introduction of the ghetto benches, but their voices were ignored; together with Polish students that objected to the ghettos, they would protest by standing in class, refusing to sit down.<ref>{{pl icon}} [http://www.diapozytyw.pl/pl/site/slownik_terminow/getto_lawkowe/ Getto ławkowe], based on Alina Cała, Hanna Węgrzynek and Gabriela Zalewska, ''Historia i kultura Żydów polskich. Słownik'', WSiP, </ref> The only rector that refused to establish ghetto benches in his university was Prof. [[Stanisław Kulczyński]] of [[Lwów University]]. Facing the decision to sign the order introducing segregated seating Prof. Kulczyński resigned from his position.<ref name="Melzer76"/><ref name="Rabinowicz"/> Nevertheless the an instruction ordering special "mandatory seats" for all Jewish students still was issued by the vice-rector of Lwów University the next morning .<ref name="Melzer76"/> The only faculty in Poland that did not have Ghetto benches introduced was Children's Clinic in the [[Piłsudski University of Warsaw]] led by Professor [[Mieczysław Michałowicz]] who refused to obey Rector's order.<ref name="Rabinowicz"/> |
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This setback for segregationist cause did not stop the attempts to establish ghetto benches in Polish universities. The demand for segregated seating was raised by [[OZON]]-led [[Young Poland League]],<ref name="Melzer74"> Melzer, p.74</ref> [[All-Polish Youth]] and other nationalist youth organizations.<ref name="Michlic"/> |
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| ⚫ | The extreme ethno-nationalists won their campaign for ghetto benches in 1937 when by Ministry decision universities were granted the right to regulate the seating of Polish and Jewish students.<ref name="Michlic"/> On October 5, 1937 the Rector of [[Warsaw Polytechnic]] ordered the establishment of the institution of ghetto benches in the lecture halls.<ref name="Rabinowicz"/> Within few days similar orders were given in other. universities of Poland <ref name="Melzer76"> Melzer, p.76</ref> |
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Despite the arguments by [[Sanacja]] government that introduction of ghetto benches would stop the disturbances, anti-Jewish violence continued to take place, resulting even in individual murders of Jewish students in some cases.<ref name="Michlic"/> |
Despite the arguments by [[Sanacja]] government that introduction of ghetto benches would stop the disturbances, anti-Jewish violence continued to take place, resulting even in individual murders of Jewish students in some cases.<ref name="Michlic"/> |
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Revision as of 20:37, 6 October 2007
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Ghetto benches (Polish: Getto ławkowe) is an informal name for the system of segregated seating for Jewish students introduced in Poland's universities in 1930s.
Background
Ever since the attainment of Poland's independence in 1918, the Polish universities had been strongholds of nationalist Endecja movement and centers for anti-Semitic agitation. [1] Various means of limiting the number of Jewish students were adopted ultimately seeking to reduce Jewish role in Poland's economic and social life.[1] In the final years of Piłsudski's rule the status of Jewish students deteriorated even further. As the intellectual classes were hit by unemployment during the economic recession of 1930s agitation against Jewish students intensified.[1] In November 1931 violence accompanied by demands to reduce the number of Jewish students broke out in several Polish universities.[1] The universities' autonomous status contributed to such actions [1][2] as university rectors tended not invite police to protect Jewish students from the attacks in the campuses [1] and no action against the students committing acts of anti-Jewish violence were taken.[3][4]
Ghetto benches
In 1935 students associated with Endecja and National Radical Camp, under influence of Nazi Nuremberg Laws,[3] demanded segregation of Jews into separate sections, known as "ghetto benches", in the classrooms.[3] The majority of Jewish students refused to accept this system if seating, considering it to be a violation of their civil rights.[5]. Facing the refusal to obey the new system, Polish students attempted to move Jews to the ghetto benches by physical force in some universities.[3][5]
In 1935 anti-Jewish riots broke out at the University of Warsaw and the Warsaw Polytechnic. From the campuses violence spread to the streets of Warsaw. [3] Subsequently violence broke out also at other universities in Poland. [3] Constant anti-Jewish violence eventually led to the temporary closure of all of Warsaw's institutions of higher education in November 1935. The nationalist Endek press put the blame for the riots on Jews, refusing to comply with special seating arrangements set by Polish students.[3]
Attempts to legalize segregated seating
For the first time ghetto benches were officially sanctioned in December 1935 at the Lwów Polytechnic.[3] Following several violent attacks against Jewish students, school officials ordered them so sit in separate sections, under threat of expulsion .[2] Various penalties were imposed upon those who stayed away from the classes in protest against segregated seating.[4] This move to legalize ghetto benches was contested by Jewish community seeing it as a dangerous precedent. Ghetto benches were criticized by Jewish delegates to the Seym. In January 1936 a delegation of representatives of Jewish community of Lwów met Poland's Education Minister who promised to discuss the issue with school administration and in February 1936 ghetto bench order was canceled by the Academic Senate of Lwów Polytechnic.[4]
Official sanction of ghetto benches
This setback for segregationist cause did not stop the attempts to establish ghetto benches in Polish universities. The demand for segregated seating was raised by OZON-led Young Poland League,[6] All-Polish Youth and other nationalist youth organizations.[5] The extreme ethno-nationalists won their campaign for ghetto benches in 1937 when by Ministry decision universities were granted the right to regulate the seating of Polish and Jewish students.[5] On October 5, 1937 the Rector of Warsaw Polytechnic ordered the establishment of the institution of ghetto benches in the lecture halls.[2] Within few days similar orders were given in other. universities of Poland [7] Some Polish professors (for example, Marceli Handelsman, Stanisław Ossowski, Tadeusz Kotarbiński) criticized the introduction of the ghetto benches, but their voices were ignored; together with Polish students that objected to the ghettos, they would protest by standing in class, refusing to sit down.[8] The only rector that refused to establish ghetto benches in his university was Prof. Stanisław Kulczyński of Lwów University. Facing the decision to sign the order introducing segregated seating Prof. Kulczyński resigned from his position.[7][2] Nevertheless the an instruction ordering special "mandatory seats" for all Jewish students still was issued by the vice-rector of Lwów University the next morning .[7] The only faculty in Poland that did not have Ghetto benches introduced was Children's Clinic in the Piłsudski University of Warsaw led by Professor Mieczysław Michałowicz who refused to obey Rector's order.[2]
Despite the arguments by Sanacja government that introduction of ghetto benches would stop the disturbances, anti-Jewish violence continued to take place, resulting even in individual murders of Jewish students in some cases.[5]
See also
References
- ^ a b c d e f Emmanuel Melzer No Way Out: The Politics of Polish Jewry, 1935-1939 Wayne State University Press, 1997, ISBN 0878204180, p.71
- ^ a b c d e H. Rabinowicz The Battle of the Ghetto Benches , The Jewish Quarterly Review, New Ser., Vol. 55, No. 2. (Oct., 1964), pp. 151-159
- ^ a b c d e f g h Melzer, p.72
- ^ a b c Melzer, p.73
- ^ a b c d e Joanna Beata Michlic Poland's Threatening Other: The Image of the Jew from 1880 to the Present, University of Nebraska Press, 2006 p. 113-114
- ^ Melzer, p.74
- ^ a b c Melzer, p.76
- ^ Template:Pl icon Getto ławkowe, based on Alina Cała, Hanna Węgrzynek and Gabriela Zalewska, Historia i kultura Żydów polskich. Słownik, WSiP,
Further reading
- Template:Pl icon Monika Natkowska, "Numerus clausus", "ghetto ławkowe", "numerus nullus": Antisemityzm na uniwersytecie Warszawskim 1931–39 ("Numerus clauses", "ghetto benches", "numerus nullus": Antisemitism in Warsaw University" 1931–39), Warsaw, 1999.