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{{Short description|Tibetic language spoken in Bhutan}}
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name=Brokpa
|name=Brokpa
|nativename=''Brokpake''
|nativename=''Brokpa kay''
|region= [[Bhutan]]
|region= [[Bhutan]]
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
Line 11: Line 12:
|fam4=[[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]]
|fam4=[[Tibetic languages|Tibetic]]
|fam5=Dzongkha–Lhokä
|fam5=Dzongkha–Lhokä
|script=[[Tibetan alphabet]]
|script=[[Tibetan script]]
|iso3=sgt
|iso3=sgt
|glotto=brok1248
|glotto=brok1248
Line 17: Line 18:
}}
}}


The '''Brokpa language '''(Brokpa: Brokpakæ;<ref>Wangdi, 2021, p. 5</ref> {{langx |dz|དྲོག་པ་ཁ།, དྲོགཔ་ཁ།}}) is a [[Tibetic]] language spoken by around 5,000 people.<ref>van Driem 2001, p. 867</ref>
The '''Brokpa language''' ({{lang-dz |དྲོག་པ་ཁ།, དྲོགཔ་ཁ།}}, ''Dr˚okpakha'', ''Dr˚opkha''), also called the '''Mera-Sakteng language''' after its speakers' home regions, is a [[Tibetic languages|Southern Tibetic language]] spoken by about 5000 people mainly in [[Merag Gewog|Mera]] and [[Sakteng Gewog]]s in the Sakteng Valley of [[Trashigang District]] in Eastern [[Bhutan]].<ref name=SIL1>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=sgt |title=Brokpake |work=[[Ethnologue]] Online |publisher=[[SIL International]] |location=[[Dallas]] |year=2006 |accessdate=2011-01-18}}</ref><ref name=vanDriem93>{{cite web|url=http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo:3003 |format=PDF |last=van Driem |first=George L. |authorlink=George van Driem |title=Language Policy in Bhutan |publisher=[[School of Oriental and African Studies|SOAS]] |location=[[London]] |year=1993 |accessdate=2011-01-18}}</ref> Brokpa is spoken by descendants of pastoral [[yak]]herd communities.<ref name=vanDriem93/>
It is spoken by descendants of pastoral [[yak]]herd communities.<ref name=vanDriem93/>


== Name ==
The word brokpa has two parts. 'brok' and 'pa'. In Tibetic 'Brok' means mountain and 'pa' means native people, so the word 'Brokpa' refers to the language spoken by the people living on the mountains.
The Tibetan word {{Bo-textonly|འབྲོག་པ་|lang=bo}} ''`brog pa'' refers to a multitude of nomadic or partially nomadic pastoral yak herd communities of the Himalaya region.<ref name="Bodt12,303" />
[[Roger Blench]] has also recently named a language complex called Senge spoken in three villages northwest of [[Dirang]] in [[West Kameng district]].<ref>http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/South%20Asia/NEI/Bodish/Senge%20cluster/Sengres.htm</ref>


Due to their distribution Brokpa of Merak and Sakteng are sometimes also referred to as ''mera-sakteng-pa'' (‘people of Merak and Sakteng’) and their language as '''mera-sakteng-kha''' (‘language of Merak and Sakteng’).<ref>van Driem 1998, p. 15</ref>
Dondrup (1993:3) lists the following Brokpa villages.

==Classification==
Brokpa is generally considered to be part of the [[Tibetic]] sub-cluster of the [[Sino-Tibetan]] language family. The internal classification within Tibetic has hitherto not been conclusively determined, which makes the exact position of Brokpa unclear.<ref name="Gerber/Grollmann,1-21">Gerber/Grollmann 2020, p. 1-21</ref>

Based on the classification by Shafer (1955), Brokpa would be considered as part of the Central [[Bodish]] branch, together with, among others, [[Dzongkha]], [[Chochangachakha language|Chocangacakha]] and [[Classical Tibetan]].<ref>Shafer 1955, p. 94-111</ref>

Tournadre (2014) classifies it as part of the Southern Section of Tibetic. However, it has been noted that Brokpa does not share some phonological innovations made by Dzongkha and can therefore not be grouped together with Dzongkha at the lowest order of the family tree.<ref name="Gerber/Grollmann,1-21" />

== Usage ==

The language is mainly spoken in the Bhutanese Gewogs of [[Merag Gewog|Merak]] and [[Sakteng Gewog|Sakteng]] in the [[Trashigang District]] of Eastern [[Bhutan]] and in the Indian districts of [[Tawang]] and [[West Kameng]] in [[Arunachal Pradesh]].<ref name="Bodt12,303">Bodt 2012, p. 303</ref><ref name=SIL1>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=sgt |title=Brokpake |work=[[Ethnologue]] Online |publisher=[[SIL International]] |location=[[Dallas]] |year=2006 |access-date=2011-01-18}}</ref><ref name="vanDriem93">{{Cite web |last=van Driem |first=George |author-link=George van Driem |date=1993 |title=Language Policy in Bhutan |url=http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo:3003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101101084255/http://repository.forcedmigration.org/pdf/?pid=fmo%3A3003 |archive-date=2010-11-01 |access-date=2011-01-18 |publisher=[[School of Oriental and African Studies|SOAS]] |location=[[London]]}}</ref>

Dondrup (1993: 3) lists the following Brokpa villages.
*[[West Kameng district]]
*[[West Kameng district]]
**Lubrung
**Lubrung
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**Lakuthang
**Lakuthang
*[[Bhutan]]
*[[Bhutan]]
**Saklang
**Sakteng
**Marale
**Merak


The 1981 census counted 1855 Brokpa people in [[Arunachal Pradesh]].
The 1981 census counted 1,855 Brokpa people in [[Arunachal Pradesh]].


==See also==
== Phonology ==

Brokpa is usually described as a more conservative or archaic language, although it has also made some innovations.<ref name="Gerber/Grollmann,1-21" /><ref name="Wangdi20">Pema Wangdi 2020</ref>

=== Consonants ===

The following table shows the inventory of Brokpa consonants as described in Wangdi (2021: 101–125)

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Brokpa consonants
|-
! !! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]!! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]!! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]!! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]!! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]!! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive]]
|| {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|p}}ʰ || {{IPA|t}} {{IPA|t}}ʰ || {{IPA|ʈ}} {{IPA|ʈ}}ʰ || || {{IPA|k}} {{IPA|k}}ʰ || {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
|| {{IPA|b}} {{IPA|b}}ʱ || {{IPA|d}} {{IPA|d}}ʱ || {{IPA|ɖ}} {{IPA|ɖ}}ʱ || || {{IPA|ɡ}} {{IPA|ɡ}}ʱ ||
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Affricate]]
|| || t͡s t͡sʰ
|| || t͡ɕ t͡ɕʰ || ||
|-
|| || d͡z d͡zʱ
|| || d͡ʑ d͡ʑʱ || ||
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative]]
|| || {{IPA|s}} || || {{IPA|ɕ}} || || {{IPA|h}}
|-
|| || {{IPA|z}} || || {{IPA|ʑ}} || || {{IPA|ɦ}}
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || || {{IPA|ɲ}} || {{IPA|ŋ}} ||
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|| || r̥ || || || ||
|-
|| || r || || || ||
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Approximant]]
|| || l̥ || || || ||
|-
|| {{IPA|w}} || l || || {{IPA|j}} || ||
|}

{{ordered list|type=lower-roman
| /{{IPA|pʰ}}/ is realised as [{{IPA|ɸ}}] word-finally
| /{{IPA|ɡ}}/ is realised as [{{IPA|k}}] word-finally
| /{{IPA|kʰ}}/ is realised as [{{IPA|x}}] word-finally
| /{{IPA|ɡ}}/ is realised as [{{IPA|ɣ}}] intervocally
| /{{IPA|b}}/ is realised as [{{IPA|β}}] intervocally
| /{{IPA|dz}}/ is in free variation with /{{IPA|z}}/
| /{{IPA|z}}/ is in free variation with /{{IPA|s}}/
| /{{IPA|ɦ}}/ and /{{IPA|w}}/ are sometimes interchangeable, such as in ''{{IPA|ɦukpa ~ wukpa}}'' ‘owl’, but not always, such as in ''{{IPA|ɦom(a)}}'' ‘milk’, which is never ''{{IPA|*woma}}''
}}

Additionally, some speakers do not consistently make the distinction between voiced and breathy voiced stops.

Other scholars do not consider the breathy-voiced stops to be distinctive phonemes since they correlate with low register tone. On the other hand, they consider palatal stops {{IPA|/c, cʰ, ɟ/}} to be phonemic rather than palatalization of a velar consonant followed by the glide {{IPA|/j/}} as Wangdi (2021) does. Additionally, {{IPA|/r̥/}} has also been analysed as {{IPA|/ʂ/}} with free alternation {{IPA|[ʂ ~ r̥]}}, based on historical evidence.<ref>Funk 2020, p. 22-41</ref><ref>Rüfenacht/Waldis 2020, p. 42-53</ref>

=== Vowels ===

The vowel phonemes of Brokpa, according to Wangdi (2021), are as follows:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Brokpa vowels
|-
! !! [[Front vowel|Front]]!! [[Central vowel|Central]]!! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
|| {{IPA|i}} yː || || {{IPA|u}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-Mid]]
|| {{IPA|e}} øː || ||
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-Mid]]
|| æ {{IPA|ɛː}}|| {{IPA|ɐ}} ||
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|a
|
|}

All vowels contrast in vowel-length in open syllables except for {{IPA|/ü, ö, æ/}} which are always realised as long. Length does not contrast in closed syllables, as long vowels may be realised as short before a syllable-final consonant.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 133-134</ref>

Nasalisation occurs phonemically due to assimilation to adjacent nasal consonants but is not considered phonetically distinctive.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 144-145</ref>

Brokpa has eight of diphthongs in monomorphemic roots, usually in open syllables: {{IPA|/iu, ui, au, ai, ou, oi, eu, ea/}}.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 132-133</ref>

=== Tone ===

Brokpa has two contrasting register [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]], high and low.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 153</ref> Some scholars mention the possible existence of a third tone, a falling [[Tone contour|contour tone]].<ref>Funk 2020, p. 32</ref>

Phonemic tone in Brokpa seems to have emerged due to the loss of voicing contrast in syllable-initial obstruents.<ref>Rüfenacht/Waldis 2020, p. 47</ref> Initial obstruents always correlate with certain pitch: Voiced obstruents and breathy-voiced stops are followed by low tone on the vowel, voiceless obstruents are followed by high tone. Tone is only contrasting in sonorant-initial syllables.

=== Phonotactics ===

There are five possible syllable types in Brokpa according to Wangdi (2021: 148–149):

{{ordered list|type=lower-roman
| C1 V
| C1 C2 V
| C1 V C3
| C1 C2 V C3
|C1 V C3 C4
}}

The most frequent syllable structures are (i) and (iii). All consonants are allowed in the initial C1 position. C2 only may be filled by /r, l, w, j/. C3 may be filled by unaspirated voiceless and aspirated voiceless stops, nasals, the fricatives /s, z/, the liquids /l, r/, and the glottal stop. The slot C4 is restricted to /s/ and /ɕ/. There is a tendency to reduce syllable final C3+C4 clusters, especially among younger speakers. Not all possible combinations of C1 and C2 are allowed at the beginning of a syllable. The possible combinations are the following: /pr/, /pl/, /pʰr/, /br/, /bl/, /kr/, /kl/, /ky/, /kʰy/, /ɡr/, /ɡl/, /ɡy/.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 148-153</ref>

== Nouns ==

=== Personal pronouns ===

Brokpa personal numbers distinguish between first, second and third person in [[Grammatical number|singular]] and [[plural]]. The third person singular pronouns distinguish between [[masculine]] and [[feminine]] gender. The Brokpa pronouns according to Wangdi (2021: 328–332) are as follows:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Brokpa pronouns
|-
! !! singular !! plural
|-
! 1st person
|| {{IPA|ŋa}} || {{IPA|ŋi}}
|-
! 2nd person
|| {{IPA|kʰyo}} || {{IPA|kʰyi}}
|-
! 3rd person masculine
|| {{IPA|kʰo}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPA|kʰoŋ}}
|-
! 3rd person feminine
|| {{IPA|mo}}
|}

Some scholars also note a distinction between first person plural [[Clusivity#First-person clusivity|inclusive]] ''{{IPA|ɲeraŋ}}'' and first person plural [[Clusivity#First-person clusivity|exclusive]] ''{{IPA|ɲí}}'' (corresponding to ''{{IPA|ŋi}}'' in the table above).<ref>Mittaz 2020, p. 57-60</ref>

=== Case ===

Brokpa marks case with clitics, which are either applied to the head of the noun phrase or its last element.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 469</ref> The case markers of Brokpa are the following according to Wangdi (2021: 469–475):

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Brokpa cases
|-
! Morpheme !! Case
|-
| =∅ || Absolutive
|-
| ={{IPA|ge}} ~ ={{IPA|gi}} || Ergative
|-
| ={{IPA|ge}} ~ ={{IPA|gi}} || Instrumental
|-
| -{{IPA|gi}} || Genitive
|-
| ={{IPA|la}}, ={{IPA|na}}, ={{IPA|su}} || Locative
|-
| ={{IPA|la}} ~ ={{IPA|lu}} || Dative
|-
| ={{IPA|læ}}, ={{IPA|næ}} || Ablative
|-
| ={{IPA|la}}, ={{IPA|te}} || Allative
|-
| ={{IPA|daŋ}} || Associate/Comitative
|}

Note that Wangdi (2021) does not consider the genitive -gi a case marker. Other scholars consider the ergative and the instrumental to be a single case marker.<ref>Rüfenacht 2020, p. 91-92</ref>

The ergative/instrumental free variation for ''={{IPA|ge}} ~ ={{IPA|gi}}'' and three additional allomorphs: ''={{IPA|ge}}'' following a sonorant consonant; ''={{IPA|ke}} ~ ={{IPA|kʰe}}'' following an obstruent; ''={{IPA|e}}'' following a vowel. However, these allomorphic variations are not consistently maintained – the noted environments are but tendencies.

The absolutive case marks intransitive subjects and transitive objects.
The ergative case marks transitive subjects.
The locative marks spatial and/or temporal peripheral arguments. The ablative also marks such arguments if movement away from the referent is present. It may also mark peripheral arguments unrelated to spatial and temporal location.
The instrumental case marks arguments in instrumental function.
The dative marks benefactive, recipient and purpose, as well as indirect objects.
The allative indicates temporal or spatial movement the referent of a noun phrase.
The comitative/associative is used for comitative case marking as well as coordination within a noun phrase, clause coordination and clause-linking.

=== Grammatical number ===

[[Grammatical number|Number]] marking is realised by enclitics and quantifying words, such as ''{{IPA|maŋbo}}'' ‘many’, or number words. However, number marking is not strictly necessary, if it is clear from context.<ref>Rüfenacht 2020, p. 84-85</ref>

Phonologically bound plural markers of Brokpa are:<ref name="Wangdi 2021, p. 478-491">Wangdi 2021, p. 478-491</ref>

* ={{IPA|baʔ}}
* ={{IPA|tsʰu}} ~ ={{IPA|zu}} ~ ={{IPA|su}}
* ={{IPA|tsʰan}} ~ ={{IPA|san}}

The plural markers ''={{IPA|baʔ}}'' and ''={{IPA|tsʰu}}'' only differ insofar that ''={{IPA|tsʰu}}'' may follow the definitive marker and is usually only attested following the definitive, while ''={{IPA|baʔ}}'' always precedes the definitive marker.

The morpheme ''={{IPA|tsʰan}}'' on the other hand is used to denote ‘X and associates’ (associative plural).

=== Number words ===

The Brokpa numbers from one to ten are:<ref name="Wangdi 2021, p. 478-491"/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Brokpa number words
|-
! Numeral !! Ordinal number word
|-
| 1 || {{IPA|tɕʰik}}, {{IPA|gaŋ}}
|-
| 2 || {{IPA|ɲi}}, {{IPA|dʱó}}
|-
| 3 || {{IPA|sum}}
|-
| 4 || {{IPA|ʑi}}
|-
| 5 || {{IPA|ŋá}}
|-
| 6 || {{IPA|ɖuk}}
|-
| 7 || {{IPA|dün}}
|-
| 8 || {{IPA|gyæ}}
|-
| 9 || {{IPA|gu}}
|-
| 10 || {{IPA|tɕu}}({{IPA|tʰam}}({{IPA|ba}}))
|}

Note that in the word for 10 both elements ''{{IPA|tʰam}}'' and ''{{IPA|ba}}'' are optinal.

Cardinal numbers are formed by suffixing ''-{{IPA|pa}}'' to the ordinal form, with exception to 1, which is ''{{IPA|daŋba}}'' ‘first’. Frequentative numerals are formed with the bond base ''{{IPA|kʰuɕ}}'' ‘times’, such as ''{{IPA|kʰuɕsum}}'' ‘three times’. Distributives are formed by adding ''-{{IPA|re}}'' to the reduplicated cardinal number.<ref>Funk/Mittaz/Rüfenacht/Waldis 2020, p. 81-82</ref>

Numerals from 10 to 19 are formed by adding the cardinal numbers of the ones to the cardinal ''{{IPA|tɕu}}'' ‘10’, as shown in the following table. Note that in some cases, a preradical from an earlier stage of the language has been retained, which can be seen in the [[Written Tibetan]] form.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 381</ref><ref>Funk/Mittaz/Rüfenacht/Waldis 2020, p. 79</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Brokpa tens
|-
! Numeral !! Ordinal number word !! Written Tibetan ones
|-
| 11 || {{IPA|tɕuktɕʰi}} || {{bo|t=གཅིག་ |w=gcig}} ‘1’
|-
| 12 || {{IPA|tɕuŋɲí}} || {{bo|t=གནིས་|w=gnyis}} ‘2’
|-
| 13 || {{IPA|tɕuksum}} || {{bo|t=གསུམ་|w=gsum}} ‘3’
|-
| 14 || {{IPA|tɕuiʑi}} || {{bo|t=བཞི་|w=bzhi}} ‘4’
|-
| 15 || {{IPA|tɕeŋa}} || {{bo|t=ལྔ་|w=lnga}} ‘5’
|-
| 16 || {{IPA|tɕuiɖuk}} || {{bo|t=དྲུག་|w=drug}} ‘6’
|-
| 17 || {{IPA|tɕupdün}} || {{bo|t=བདུན་|w=bdun}} ‘7’
|-
| 18 || {{IPA|tɕapgyæ}} || {{bo|t=བརྒྱད|w=brgyad}} ‘8’
|-
| 19 || {{IPA|tɕurgu}} || {{bo|t=བརྒྱད་|w=dgu}} ‘9’
|}

Higher numerals can be formed in a [[decimal]] or in a [[vigesimal]] system with the base word ''{{IPA|kʰaː}}'' ‘score, twenty’.

=== Natural gender ===

Brokpa does not class nouns by grammatical gender but may mark biological gender of animates. Masculine gender is marked with ''-{{IPA|pʰo}} ~ -{{IPA|po}} ~ -{{IPA|bo}}'' and female gender with ''-{{IPA|mo}} ~ -{{IPA|mu}} ~ -{{IPA|ma}}''. These morphemes are suffixed to the root of the respective noun such as ''{{IPA|ɕa}}'' ‘deer’, ''{{IPA|ɕa}}-{{IPA|pʰo}}'' ‘male deer, hart’, ''{{IPA|ɕa}}-{{IPA|mo}}'' ‘female deer, doe’. The morphemes ''{{IPA|pʰo}}'' and ''{{IPA|mo}}'' may occur in isolation when functioning as an adjective meaning ‘male’ and ‘female’ respectively.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 496</ref>

Some inanimate nouns may take gender marking in some contexts, usually poetic expressions or songs.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 499</ref>

=== Definiteness ===

Definite noun phrases are marked with ''={{IPA|di}} in Brokpa.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 491</ref> Indefiniteness is marked with ''={{IPA|tɕiʔ}} ~ ={{IPA|ʑiʔ}} ~ ={{IPA|ɕiʔ}}'', where ''={{IPA|ɕiʔ}} follows an open syllable and ''={{IPA|tɕiʔ}} ~ ={{IPA|ʑiʔ}}'' follow closed syllables.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 493-494</ref>

=== Augmentative & diminutive ===

An augmentative of a noun can be formed by suffixing the morpheme ''-{{IPA|tɕʰen}}'', which historically derives from ''{{IPA|tɕʰenpo}}'' ‘big’. It may indicate bigger size, more power and similar meanings.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 501-502</ref>

Diminutives are formed by suffixing ''-{{IPA|pʰruʔ}} ~ -{{IPA|ʈuʔ}} ~ -{{IPA|ruʔ}}'' to a noun. Historically, the form may come from the word ''{{IPA|pʰrugu}}'' ‘baby’. It is mostly used to indicate an animal of young age or for endearment.<ref>Wangdi 2021, p. 502</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Languages of Bhutan]]
*[[Languages of Bhutan]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}


== References ==
== References ==
*Bodt, Timotheus. 2012. ''The new lamp clarifying the history, peoples, languages and traditions of eastern Bhutan and eastern Mon''. Wageningen: Monpasang.
<references/>
*Dondrup, Rinchin 1993. ''Brokeh language guide''. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Arunachal Pradesh Government.
*Dondrup, Rinchin 1993. ''Brokeh language guide''. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Arunachal Pradesh Government.
*van Driem, George. 1998. ''Dzongkha''. Leiden: Research School CNWS [Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region 1].
*van Driem, George. 2001. ''Languages of the Himalayas'' (2 volumes). Leiden, Boston, Köln: Brill.
*Funk, Damian. 2020. ''A preliminary phonology of Brokpa''. In: Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 19(1). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/95m6x4p8
*Funk, Damian/Mittaz, Corinne/Rüfenacht, Sara/Waldis, Sereina. 2020. ‘The Brokpa lexicon: Notes on selected semantic fields’. In: Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 19(1). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7xw1r1sj
*Gerber, Pascal/Grollmann, Selin. 2020. ''Introduction to Aspects of Brokpa Grammar''. In: Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 19(1). https://escholarship.org/content/qt56c8w718/qt56c8w718.pdf
*Mittaz, Corinne. 2020. ''A short overview of the word classes in Brokpa''. In: Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 19(1). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7xw1r1sj
*Rüfenacht, Sara. 2020. ''Brokpa nominal morphology''. In: Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 19(1). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7xw1r1sj
*Rüfenacht, Sara/Waldis, Sereina. 2020. ''Diachronic and areal aspects of Brokpa phonology''. In: Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 19(1). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7xw1r1sj
*Tournadre, Nicolas. 2014. ''The Tibetic languages and their classification''. In: Owen-Smith, Thomas; and Hill, Nathan W. (eds.), Trans-Himalayan linguistics, 105–129. Berlin: De Gruyter [Trends in Linguistics 266].
*Wangdi, Pema. 2021. ''A Grammar of Brokpa: a Trans-Himalayan language of Bhutan''. PhD Thesis. https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/74264/1/JCU_74264_Wangdi_2021_thesis.pdf


== External links ==
== External links ==
*[http://www.himalayanlanguages.org/ Himalayan Languages Project]
*{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20090130020512/http://himalayanlanguages.org/ Himalayan Languages Project]}}


{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Bodic languages}}
{{Bodic languages}}
{{Languages of Bhutan}}
{{Languages of Bhutan}}
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[[Category:Languages of Bhutan]]
[[Category:Languages of Bhutan]]
[[Category:South Bodish languages]]
[[Category:South Bodish languages]]


{{st-lang-stub}}
{{Bhutan-stub}}

Latest revision as of 02:42, 3 November 2024

Brokpa
Brokpa kay
RegionBhutan
Native speakers
5,000 (2006)[1]
Sino-Tibetan
Tibetan script
Language codes
ISO 639-3sgt
Glottologbrok1248
ELPBrokpake

The Brokpa language (Brokpa: Brokpakæ;[2] Dzongkha: དྲོག་པ་ཁ།, དྲོགཔ་ཁ།) is a Tibetic language spoken by around 5,000 people.[3] It is spoken by descendants of pastoral yakherd communities.[4]

Name

[edit]

The Tibetan word འབྲོག་པ་ `brog pa refers to a multitude of nomadic or partially nomadic pastoral yak herd communities of the Himalaya region.[5]

Due to their distribution Brokpa of Merak and Sakteng are sometimes also referred to as mera-sakteng-pa (‘people of Merak and Sakteng’) and their language as mera-sakteng-kha (‘language of Merak and Sakteng’).[6]

Classification

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Brokpa is generally considered to be part of the Tibetic sub-cluster of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The internal classification within Tibetic has hitherto not been conclusively determined, which makes the exact position of Brokpa unclear.[7]

Based on the classification by Shafer (1955), Brokpa would be considered as part of the Central Bodish branch, together with, among others, Dzongkha, Chocangacakha and Classical Tibetan.[8]

Tournadre (2014) classifies it as part of the Southern Section of Tibetic. However, it has been noted that Brokpa does not share some phonological innovations made by Dzongkha and can therefore not be grouped together with Dzongkha at the lowest order of the family tree.[7]

Usage

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The language is mainly spoken in the Bhutanese Gewogs of Merak and Sakteng in the Trashigang District of Eastern Bhutan and in the Indian districts of Tawang and West Kameng in Arunachal Pradesh.[5][9][4]

Dondrup (1993: 3) lists the following Brokpa villages.

The 1981 census counted 1,855 Brokpa people in Arunachal Pradesh.

Phonology

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Brokpa is usually described as a more conservative or archaic language, although it has also made some innovations.[7][11]

Consonants

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The following table shows the inventory of Brokpa consonants as described in Wangdi (2021: 101–125)

Brokpa consonants
Labial Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Plosive p pʰ t tʰ ʈ ʈʰ k kʰ ʔ
b bʱ d dʱ ɖ ɖʱ ɡ ɡʱ
Affricate t͡s t͡sʰ t͡ɕ t͡ɕʰ
d͡z d͡zʱ d͡ʑ d͡ʑʱ
Fricative s ɕ h
z ʑ ɦ
Nasal m n ɲ ŋ
Trill r̥
r
Approximant l̥
w l j
  1. /pʰ/ is realised as [ɸ] word-finally
  2. /ɡ/ is realised as [k] word-finally
  3. /kʰ/ is realised as [x] word-finally
  4. /ɡ/ is realised as [ɣ] intervocally
  5. /b/ is realised as [β] intervocally
  6. /dz/ is in free variation with /z/
  7. /z/ is in free variation with /s/
  8. /ɦ/ and /w/ are sometimes interchangeable, such as in ɦukpa ~ wukpa ‘owl’, but not always, such as in ɦom(a) ‘milk’, which is never *woma

Additionally, some speakers do not consistently make the distinction between voiced and breathy voiced stops.

Other scholars do not consider the breathy-voiced stops to be distinctive phonemes since they correlate with low register tone. On the other hand, they consider palatal stops /c, cʰ, ɟ/ to be phonemic rather than palatalization of a velar consonant followed by the glide /j/ as Wangdi (2021) does. Additionally, /r̥/ has also been analysed as /ʂ/ with free alternation [ʂ ~ r̥], based on historical evidence.[12][13]

Vowels

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The vowel phonemes of Brokpa, according to Wangdi (2021), are as follows:

Brokpa vowels
Front Central Back
Close i yː u
Close-Mid e øː
Open-Mid æ ɛː ɐ
Open a

All vowels contrast in vowel-length in open syllables except for /ü, ö, æ/ which are always realised as long. Length does not contrast in closed syllables, as long vowels may be realised as short before a syllable-final consonant.[14]

Nasalisation occurs phonemically due to assimilation to adjacent nasal consonants but is not considered phonetically distinctive.[15]

Brokpa has eight of diphthongs in monomorphemic roots, usually in open syllables: /iu, ui, au, ai, ou, oi, eu, ea/.[16]

Tone

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Brokpa has two contrasting register tones, high and low.[17] Some scholars mention the possible existence of a third tone, a falling contour tone.[18]

Phonemic tone in Brokpa seems to have emerged due to the loss of voicing contrast in syllable-initial obstruents.[19] Initial obstruents always correlate with certain pitch: Voiced obstruents and breathy-voiced stops are followed by low tone on the vowel, voiceless obstruents are followed by high tone. Tone is only contrasting in sonorant-initial syllables.

Phonotactics

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There are five possible syllable types in Brokpa according to Wangdi (2021: 148–149):

  1. C1 V
  2. C1 C2 V
  3. C1 V C3
  4. C1 C2 V C3
  5. C1 V C3 C4

The most frequent syllable structures are (i) and (iii). All consonants are allowed in the initial C1 position. C2 only may be filled by /r, l, w, j/. C3 may be filled by unaspirated voiceless and aspirated voiceless stops, nasals, the fricatives /s, z/, the liquids /l, r/, and the glottal stop. The slot C4 is restricted to /s/ and /ɕ/. There is a tendency to reduce syllable final C3+C4 clusters, especially among younger speakers. Not all possible combinations of C1 and C2 are allowed at the beginning of a syllable. The possible combinations are the following: /pr/, /pl/, /pʰr/, /br/, /bl/, /kr/, /kl/, /ky/, /kʰy/, /ɡr/, /ɡl/, /ɡy/.[20]

Nouns

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Personal pronouns

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Brokpa personal numbers distinguish between first, second and third person in singular and plural. The third person singular pronouns distinguish between masculine and feminine gender. The Brokpa pronouns according to Wangdi (2021: 328–332) are as follows:

Brokpa pronouns
singular plural
1st person ŋa ŋi
2nd person kʰyo kʰyi
3rd person masculine kʰo kʰoŋ
3rd person feminine mo

Some scholars also note a distinction between first person plural inclusive ɲeraŋ and first person plural exclusive ɲí (corresponding to ŋi in the table above).[21]

Case

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Brokpa marks case with clitics, which are either applied to the head of the noun phrase or its last element.[22] The case markers of Brokpa are the following according to Wangdi (2021: 469–475):

Brokpa cases
Morpheme Case
=∅ Absolutive
=ge ~ =gi Ergative
=ge ~ =gi Instrumental
-gi Genitive
=la, =na, =su Locative
=la ~ =lu Dative
=læ, =næ Ablative
=la, =te Allative
=daŋ Associate/Comitative

Note that Wangdi (2021) does not consider the genitive -gi a case marker. Other scholars consider the ergative and the instrumental to be a single case marker.[23]

The ergative/instrumental free variation for =ge ~ =gi and three additional allomorphs: =ge following a sonorant consonant; =ke ~ =kʰe following an obstruent; =e following a vowel. However, these allomorphic variations are not consistently maintained – the noted environments are but tendencies.

The absolutive case marks intransitive subjects and transitive objects. The ergative case marks transitive subjects. The locative marks spatial and/or temporal peripheral arguments. The ablative also marks such arguments if movement away from the referent is present. It may also mark peripheral arguments unrelated to spatial and temporal location. The instrumental case marks arguments in instrumental function. The dative marks benefactive, recipient and purpose, as well as indirect objects. The allative indicates temporal or spatial movement the referent of a noun phrase. The comitative/associative is used for comitative case marking as well as coordination within a noun phrase, clause coordination and clause-linking.

Grammatical number

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Number marking is realised by enclitics and quantifying words, such as maŋbo ‘many’, or number words. However, number marking is not strictly necessary, if it is clear from context.[24]

Phonologically bound plural markers of Brokpa are:[25]

  • =baʔ
  • =tsʰu ~ =zu ~ =su
  • =tsʰan ~ =san

The plural markers =baʔ and =tsʰu only differ insofar that =tsʰu may follow the definitive marker and is usually only attested following the definitive, while =baʔ always precedes the definitive marker.

The morpheme =tsʰan on the other hand is used to denote ‘X and associates’ (associative plural).

Number words

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The Brokpa numbers from one to ten are:[25]

Brokpa number words
Numeral Ordinal number word
1 tɕʰik, gaŋ
2 ɲi, dʱó
3 sum
4 ʑi
5 ŋá
6 ɖuk
7 dün
8 gyæ
9 gu
10 tɕu(tʰam(ba))

Note that in the word for 10 both elements tʰam and ba are optinal.

Cardinal numbers are formed by suffixing -pa to the ordinal form, with exception to 1, which is daŋba ‘first’. Frequentative numerals are formed with the bond base kʰuɕ ‘times’, such as kʰuɕsum ‘three times’. Distributives are formed by adding -re to the reduplicated cardinal number.[26]

Numerals from 10 to 19 are formed by adding the cardinal numbers of the ones to the cardinal tɕu ‘10’, as shown in the following table. Note that in some cases, a preradical from an earlier stage of the language has been retained, which can be seen in the Written Tibetan form.[27][28]

Brokpa tens
Numeral Ordinal number word Written Tibetan ones
11 tɕuktɕʰi Tibetan: གཅིག་, Wylie: gcig ‘1’
12 tɕuŋɲí Tibetan: གནིས་, Wylie: gnyis ‘2’
13 tɕuksum Tibetan: གསུམ་, Wylie: gsum ‘3’
14 tɕuiʑi Tibetan: བཞི་, Wylie: bzhi ‘4’
15 tɕeŋa Tibetan: ལྔ་, Wylie: lnga ‘5’
16 tɕuiɖuk Tibetan: དྲུག་, Wylie: drug ‘6’
17 tɕupdün Tibetan: བདུན་, Wylie: bdun ‘7’
18 tɕapgyæ Tibetan: བརྒྱད, Wylie: brgyad ‘8’
19 tɕurgu Tibetan: བརྒྱད་, Wylie: dgu ‘9’

Higher numerals can be formed in a decimal or in a vigesimal system with the base word kʰaː ‘score, twenty’.

Natural gender

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Brokpa does not class nouns by grammatical gender but may mark biological gender of animates. Masculine gender is marked with -pʰo ~ -po ~ -bo and female gender with -mo ~ -mu ~ -ma. These morphemes are suffixed to the root of the respective noun such as ɕa ‘deer’, ɕa-pʰo ‘male deer, hart’, ɕa-mo ‘female deer, doe’. The morphemes pʰo and mo may occur in isolation when functioning as an adjective meaning ‘male’ and ‘female’ respectively.[29]

Some inanimate nouns may take gender marking in some contexts, usually poetic expressions or songs.[30]

Definiteness

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Definite noun phrases are marked with =di in Brokpa.[31] Indefiniteness is marked with =tɕiʔ ~ =ʑiʔ ~ =ɕiʔ, where =ɕiʔ follows an open syllable and =tɕiʔ ~ =ʑiʔ follow closed syllables.[32]

Augmentative & diminutive

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An augmentative of a noun can be formed by suffixing the morpheme -tɕʰen, which historically derives from tɕʰenpo ‘big’. It may indicate bigger size, more power and similar meanings.[33]

Diminutives are formed by suffixing -pʰruʔ ~ -ʈuʔ ~ -ruʔ to a noun. Historically, the form may come from the word pʰrugu ‘baby’. It is mostly used to indicate an animal of young age or for endearment.[34]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Brokpa at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. ^ Wangdi, 2021, p. 5
  3. ^ van Driem 2001, p. 867
  4. ^ a b van Driem, George (1993). "Language Policy in Bhutan". London: SOAS. Archived from the original on 2010-11-01. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
  5. ^ a b Bodt 2012, p. 303
  6. ^ van Driem 1998, p. 15
  7. ^ a b c Gerber/Grollmann 2020, p. 1-21
  8. ^ Shafer 1955, p. 94-111
  9. ^ "Brokpake". Ethnologue Online. Dallas: SIL International. 2006. Retrieved 2011-01-18.
  10. ^ first letter missing in book
  11. ^ Pema Wangdi 2020
  12. ^ Funk 2020, p. 22-41
  13. ^ Rüfenacht/Waldis 2020, p. 42-53
  14. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 133-134
  15. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 144-145
  16. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 132-133
  17. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 153
  18. ^ Funk 2020, p. 32
  19. ^ Rüfenacht/Waldis 2020, p. 47
  20. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 148-153
  21. ^ Mittaz 2020, p. 57-60
  22. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 469
  23. ^ Rüfenacht 2020, p. 91-92
  24. ^ Rüfenacht 2020, p. 84-85
  25. ^ a b Wangdi 2021, p. 478-491
  26. ^ Funk/Mittaz/Rüfenacht/Waldis 2020, p. 81-82
  27. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 381
  28. ^ Funk/Mittaz/Rüfenacht/Waldis 2020, p. 79
  29. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 496
  30. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 499
  31. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 491
  32. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 493-494
  33. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 501-502
  34. ^ Wangdi 2021, p. 502

References

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  • Bodt, Timotheus. 2012. The new lamp clarifying the history, peoples, languages and traditions of eastern Bhutan and eastern Mon. Wageningen: Monpasang.
  • Dondrup, Rinchin 1993. Brokeh language guide. Itanagar: Directorate of Research, Arunachal Pradesh Government.
  • van Driem, George. 1998. Dzongkha. Leiden: Research School CNWS [Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region 1].
  • van Driem, George. 2001. Languages of the Himalayas (2 volumes). Leiden, Boston, Köln: Brill.
  • Funk, Damian. 2020. A preliminary phonology of Brokpa. In: Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 19(1). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/95m6x4p8
  • Funk, Damian/Mittaz, Corinne/Rüfenacht, Sara/Waldis, Sereina. 2020. ‘The Brokpa lexicon: Notes on selected semantic fields’. In: Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 19(1). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7xw1r1sj
  • Gerber, Pascal/Grollmann, Selin. 2020. Introduction to Aspects of Brokpa Grammar. In: Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 19(1). https://escholarship.org/content/qt56c8w718/qt56c8w718.pdf
  • Mittaz, Corinne. 2020. A short overview of the word classes in Brokpa. In: Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 19(1). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7xw1r1sj
  • Rüfenacht, Sara. 2020. Brokpa nominal morphology. In: Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 19(1). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7xw1r1sj
  • Rüfenacht, Sara/Waldis, Sereina. 2020. Diachronic and areal aspects of Brokpa phonology. In: Himalayan Linguistics, Vol. 19(1). https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7xw1r1sj
  • Tournadre, Nicolas. 2014. The Tibetic languages and their classification. In: Owen-Smith, Thomas; and Hill, Nathan W. (eds.), Trans-Himalayan linguistics, 105–129. Berlin: De Gruyter [Trends in Linguistics 266].
  • Wangdi, Pema. 2021. A Grammar of Brokpa: a Trans-Himalayan language of Bhutan. PhD Thesis. https://researchonline.jcu.edu.au/74264/1/JCU_74264_Wangdi_2021_thesis.pdf
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