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- –––. 2014. Gender at Work: A Companion to the World Development Report on Jobs. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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- –––. 2017a. Creating Markets in Ghana: Country Private Sector Diagnostic. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.
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- –––. 2017b. Ghana: Agriculture Sector Policy Note - Transforming Agriculture for Economic Growth, Job Creation and Food Security. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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- –––. 2017c. Medium-Term National Development Policy Framework: An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018–2021. Government of Ghana National Development Planning Commission, Accra.
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- –––. 2018. Ghana Living Standards Survey Report 7 (2017). Ghana Statistical Service, Accra.
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- –––. 2018a. Ghana Priorities for Ending Poverty and Boosting Shared Prosperity: Systematic Country Diagnostic. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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- –––. 2018b. Project Appraisal Document on a Proposed Credit in the Amount of SDR 43.1 Million (US$60 Million Equivalent) to the Republic of Ghana for the Ghana Productive Safety Net Project. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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- –––. 2018c. Third Ghana Economic Update: Agriculture as an Engine of Growth and Jobs Creation. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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- –––. 2019a. “The Future of Work in the Health Sector.” Working Paper No. 325, International Labour Organization, Geneva. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_dialogue/---sector/documents/publication/wcms_669363.pdf.
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- –––. 2019a. Ghana Digital Economy Diagnostic. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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- –––. 2019b. “The Future of Work in Textiles, Clothing, Leather and Footwear”. Working Paper No. 326, International Labour Organization, Geneva. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_dialogue/---sector/documents/publication/wcms_669355.pdf.
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- –––. 2019b. World Development Report 2019: The Changing Nature of Work. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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- –––. 2020. “Mid-Year Review of the Budget Statement and Economic Policy of the Government of Ghana & Supplementary Estimate for the 2020 Financial Year.” https://www.mofep.gov.gh/sites/default/files/budget-statements/2020-Mid-Year-BudgetStatement_v3. pdf.
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- –––. 2020. Regional Economic Outlook: Sub-Saharan Africa: A Difficult Road to Recovery. (October) Washington, DC: IMF.
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- –––. 2020a. Brief on COVID-19 Households and Jobs Tracker: Wave 1. Ghana Statistical Service, Accra.
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- –––. 2020b. How COVID-19 Is Affecting Firms in Ghana: Results from the Business Tracker Survey. Ghana Statistical Service, Accra.
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- –––. 2020b. The Human Capital Index 2020 Update: Human Capital in the Time of COVID-19. Washington, DC: World Bank. –––. Forthcoming. Ghana Poverty Assessment. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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- –––2017b. Ghana Industrial Policy. Ministry of Trade and Industry, Accra. www.moti.gov.gh/docs/Industrial%20Policy.pdf.
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Ackah, Charles, Charles Adjasi, and Festus Turkson. 2016. “Scoping Study on the Evolution of Industry in Ghana.” Learning to Compete Working Paper No. 18, Brookings Institution, Washington, DC; African Development Bank, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire; United Nations University-World Institute for Development (UNU-WIDER), Helsinki, Finland.
- Adofo, Josephine Ofori, Nori Tarui, and Tomomi Tanaka. 2019. The Local Economic Effects of Natural Resources: Evidence from Ghana. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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- Almeida, Rita, Juliana Arbelaez, Maddalena Honorati, Arvo Kuddo, Tanja Lohmann, Mirey Ovadiya, Lucian Pop, Maria Laura Sanchez Puerta, and Michael Weber. 2012.
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- Along with fiscal incentives, a largely literate and English-speaking labor force helped Malaysia successfully lure transnational corporations. The government of Malaysia favored export-oriented enterprises, and these companies enjoyed various government subsidies for training, export, and R&D activities. They were also the main beneficiaries of duty drawbacks along with export incentives offering double deduction benefits on corporate tax. The government also targeted the E&E sector by concluding Technology Transfer Agreements to enable enterprises to obtain the necessary technologies for state-ofthe -art manufacturing. During the 1989–96 period, the government approved a total of 1,124 technology transfer agreements.
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Amewu, Sena, Seth Asante, Karl Pauw, and James Thurlow. 2020. “The Economic Costs of COVID-19 in Sub-Saharan Africa: Insights from a Simulation Exercise for Ghana.” IFPRI Strategy Support Program Working Paper 52 (June revision), International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC.
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- Arias, Omar, David K. Evans, and Indhira Santos. 2019. The Skills Balancing Act in SubSaharan Africa: Investing in Skills for Productivity, Inclusivity, and Adaptability. Africa Development Forum. Washington, DC: World Bank; Paris, France: Agence Française de Développement.
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Baah-Boateng, William, and Eric Twum. 2019. Economic Complexity and Employment for Women and Youth: The Case of Ghana. Report commissioned by the “Building Economic Complexity in Africa: Laying the Foundation for Expanding Economic Opportunities for Women and Youth in Africa” project. Development Policy Research Unit, University of Cape Town, South Africa.
Beegle, Kathleen, and Eliana Rubiano-Matulevich. 2020. “Adapting Skills Training to Address Constraints to Women’s Participation.” Jobs Notes 7, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Beegle, Kathleen, and Luc Christiaensen. 2019. Accelerating Poverty Reduction in Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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Blunch, Niels-Hugo, and Dorte Verner. 2000. “Is Functional Literacy a Prerequisite for Entering the Labor Market? An Analysis of the Determinants of Adult Literacy and Earnings in Ghana.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 2410, World Bank, Washington, DC.
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- Bowen, Thomas, Carlos del Ninno, Colin Andrews, Sarah Coll-Black, Ugo Gentilini, Kelly Johnson, Yasuhiro Kawasoe, Adea Kryeziu, Barry Maher, and Asha Williams. 2020. Adaptive Social Protection: Building Resilience to Shocks. International Development in Focus. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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- Box 1. Early Developments in Ghana’s Industrial Policy Ghana’s post-independence (1957) industrialization strategy sought to develop large-scale, capitalintensive manufacturing industries owned and managed by the state, commonly referred to as import substitution industrialization (ISI). ISI was accompanied by protectionist measures to promote so-called infant industries. The government invested heavily in infrastructure and manufacturing activities by setting up state-owned enterprises (SOEs) for domestic production of previously imported consumer goods, processing of exports of primary products (agricultural and mining), and the expansion and development of building materials and of the country’s electrical, electronic, and machinery industries.
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- Box 2. Malaysia’s Industrialization through Electrical and Electronics Manufacturing The period between 1957 and the early 1990s is generally considered as one where the Malaysian economy achieved substantive structural transformation with the share of manufacturing in GDP rising from 14 percent in 1971 to 30 percent in 1993. The share of manufactures in total exports rose from 12 percent to 71 percent over the same period.
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- By 1983, the government had raised tax rates on rental income and on consumables such as beer, cigarettes, and gasoline, and introduced new taxes on wealth, including on property and non-commercial vehicles. The government also introduced simplified tax schedules that capped the import tariff at a maximum of 30 percent. At the same time, the government strengthened its tax collection system with the aim of boosting revenue collection. These policies appear to have contributed to a significant increase in government revenue. Although spending and revenue remained stable for some time, the government began to focus on providing and improving incentives for the private sector with the aim of increasing its contribution to growth.
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Choi, Jieun, Mark Dutz, and Zainab Usman. 2020. The Future of Work in Africa: Harnessing the Potential of Digital Technologies for All. Africa Development Forum. Washington, DC: World Bank.
- Clarion and National Semiconductor started the first operations in the electronics sector in Malaysia in 1972, when the Bayan Lepas Export Processing Zone was opened in Penang. The government continued to establish EPZs and attracted foreign enterprises with low wages and tax exemptions. A wave of exportoriented E&E enterprises from developed countries relocated their plants to Malaysia as a result. By 1992, almost 90 percent of electronic products in Malaysia were being manufactured by affiliates of transnational corporations.
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Corden, W. Max, and J. Peter Neary. 1982. “Booming Sector and De-Industrialisation in a Small Open Economy.” Economic Journal 92 (368): 825–848.
Dadzie, Christabel E., Mawuko Fumey, and Suleiman Namara. 2020. Youth Employment Programs in Ghana: Options for Effective Policy Making and Implementation. International Development in Focus. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Darvas, Peter, Marta Favara, and Arnold, Tamara. 2017. Stepping Up Skills in Urban Ghana: Snapshot of the STEP Skills Measurement Survey. Directions in Development. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Datta, Namita, Angela Elzir Assy, Johanne Buba, Sara Johansson De Silva, and Samantha Watson. 2018. “Integrated Youth Employment Programs: A Stocktake of Evidence on What Works in Youth Employment Programs.” Jobs Working Paper 24, World Bank, Washington, DC.
de Vries, Gaaitzen, Marcel Timmer, and Klaas de Vries. 2015. “Structural Transformation in Africa: Static Gains, Dynamic Losses.” Journal of Development Studies 51 (6): 674–688.
Dino Merotto, Michael Weber, and Reyes Aterido. 2018. “Pathways to Better Jobs in IDA Countries: Findings from Jobs Diagnostics.” Jobs Series No. 14, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Fafchamps, Marcel, David McKenzie, Simon Quinn, and Christopher Woodruff. 2014. “Microenterprise Growth and the Flypaper Effect: Evidence from a Randomized Experiment in Ghana.” Journal of Development Economics 106: 211–226.
Falco, Paolo, Andrew Kerr, Pierella Paci, and Bob Rijkers. 2014. Working Toward Better Pay: Earning Dynamics in Ghana and Tanzania. Washington, DC: World Bank.
- Fasih, Tazeen, Geeta Kingdon, Harry A. Patrinos, Chris Sakellariou, and Mans Soderbom. 2012. “Heterogeneous Returns to Education in the Labor Market.” Policy Research Working Paper 6170, World Bank, Washington, DC.
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Fasih, Tazeen. 2008. Linking Education Policy to Labor Market Outcomes. Washington, DC: World Bank.
- Following the country’s poor economic performance in the 1970s and early 1980s, Ghana adopted the International Monetary Fund (IMF)- and World Bank-supported structural adjustment programs (SAP) in 1983. A key element of these programs in Ghana was a shift away from an ISI strategy to an exportled strategy and a more liberalized trade regime. Overall economic growth and growth of all economic sectors including manufacturing responded positively to the new policies.
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Fox, Louise, and Thomas Pave Sohnesen. 2012. “Household Enterprises in Sub-Saharan Africa: Why They Matter for Growth, Jobs, and Livelihoods.” Policy Research Working Paper 6184, World Bank, Washington, DC.
- Francis, David C., and Maddalena Honorati. 2016. “Deepening without Broadening? Jobs in Ghana’s Private Sector.” Policy Research Working Paper 7835, World Bank, Washington, DC.
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Geiger, Michael Tobias, Jan Trenczek, and Konstantin M. Wacker. 2019. “Understanding Economic Growth in Ghana in Comparative Perspective.” Policy Research Working Paper 8699, World Bank, Washington, DC.
- Ghana Statistical Service. 2016. 2015 Labour Force Report. Ghana Statistical Service, Accra.
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- Ghana, COTVET (Council for Technical and Vocational Education and Training). 2020. Skills Gaps Analysis and Audit of Seven Sectors. Ministry of Education, Accra.
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- Ghana, Ministry of Finance, 2019. “Budget Highlights of the Government of Ghana for the 2020 Financial Year.” Presentation to Parliament by Minister of Finance Ken Ofori-Atta, Accra, November 13. https://www.mofep.gov.gh/sites/default/files/news/2020-BudgetHighlights. pdf.
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- Ghana, Ministry of Youth and Sports. 2010. “National Youth Policy of Ghana Theme: Towards an Empowered Youth, Impacting Positively on National Development.” https://www.youthpolicy.org/national/Ghana_2010_National_Youth_Policy.pdf.
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- Ghana, MOTI (Ministry of Trade and Industry). 2010. Ghana Industrial Policy. Ministry of Trade and Industry, Accra. www.moti.gov.gh/docs/Industrial%20Policy.pdf.
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Gindling, T. H., Nadwa Mossaad, and David Newhouse. 2016. “How Large are Earnings Penalties for Self-Employed and Informal Wage Workers?” IZA Journal of Labor & Development 5: 20.
- Government of Ghana. 2017a. “The Coordinated Programme of Economic and Social Development Policies (2017–2024) An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All.” Presentation by Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo, President of the Republic, to the 7th Parliament of the 4th Republic, Accra, October 20.
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- Hausmann, Ricardo, and Cesar A. Hidalgo. 2010. “Country Diversification, Product Ubiquity, and Economic Divergence.” HKS Faculty Research Working Paper RWP10-045, John F.
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Honorati, Maddalena, and Sara Johansson De Silva. 2016. Expanding Job Opportunities in Ghana. Washington, DC: World Bank Group.
- ILO (International Labour Organization). 2013. “Report II: Statistics of Work, Employment and Labour Underutilization.” Report for discussion at the 19th International Conference of Labor Statisticians (ICLS 19), Geneva, October 2–11. https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---stat/documents/publication/wcms_220535.pdf.
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- IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2019. Regional Economic Outlook: Sub-Saharan Africa: Navigating Uncertainty. (October). Washington, DC: IMF.
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- ISI policies were largely dependent on the cocoa sector, which was dominated by less-educated or illiterate farmers. However, ISI had some initial success in fostering industrialization in Ghana, with the country’s manufacturing sector growing from representing 2 percent of total output in 1957 to 9 percent in 1969. During the 1960s, manufacturing output grew at a rate of 13 percent per year, while its share of total industrial output increased from 10 percent in 1960 to 14 percent in 1970. Industrial sector employment averaged 8 percent annual growth between 1960 and 1970, and total employment in the manufacturing sector alone increased by nearly 90 percent between 1962 and 1970.
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- Issahaku, Haruna, and Benjamin Musah Abu. 2020. “COVID-19 in Ghana: Consequences for Poverty and Fiscal Implications.” Unpublished Manuscript.
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Jolliffe, Dean. 2004. “The Impact of Education in Rural Ghana: Examining Household Labor Allocation and Returns on and off the Farm.” Journal of Development Economics 3 (1): 287–314.
- Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Herrendorf, Berthold, Richard Rogerson, and Akos Valentinyi. 2013. “Growth and Structural Transformation.” NBER Working Paper 18996, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.
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Kraay, Aart C. 2019. “The World Bank Human Capital Index: A Guide.” The World Bank Research Observer 34 (1): 1–33.
Lo Bello, Salvatore, Maria Laura Sanchez Puerta, and Hernan Winkler. 2019. “From Ghana to America: The Skill Content of Jobs and Economic Development.” Policy Research Working Paper 8758, World Bank, Washington, DC.
- McKenzie, David, and Anne Luisa Paffhausen. 2019. “Small Firm Death in Developing Countries.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 101 (4): 645–57.
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McKenzie, David, and Christopher Woodruff. 2017. “Business Practices in Small Firms in Developing Countries.” Management Science 63 (9): 2773–3145.
McMillan, Margaret S., Dani Rodrik, and I. Verduzco-Gallo. 2014. “Globalization, Structural Change, and Productivity Growth, with an Update on Africa.” World Development 63 (1): 11–32.
Molini, Vasco, and Pierella Paci. 2015. Poverty Reduction in Ghana: Progress and Challenges. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Montenegro, Claudio E., and Harry Anthony Patrinos. 2014. “Comparable Estimates of Returns to Schooling around the World,” Policy Research Working Paper 7020, World Bank, Washington, DC.
- Newfarmer, Richard S., John Page, and Finn Tarp, eds. 2018. Industries Without Smokestacks: Industrialization in Africa Reconsidered. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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- Ng’weno, Amolo, and David Porteous. 2018. “Let’s Be Real: The Informal Sector and the Gig Economy Are the Future, and the Present, of Work in Africa.” CGD Note 2018, Center for Global Development, Washington, DC.
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Nguimkeu, Pierre, and Albert Zeufack. 2019. “Manufacturing in Structural Change in Africa.” Policy Research Working Paper 8992, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Osei, Robert Darko, Richmond Atta-Ankomah, and Monica Lambon-Quayefio. 2020. “Structural Transformation and Inclusive Growth in Ghana.” Working Paper 2020/36, United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research, Helsinki.
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- Page, John, and Finn Tarp. 2020. Mining for Change: Natural Resources and Industry in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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- Page, John. 2019a. “SDGAcademyX: IPA001 Industrial Policy in the 21st Century: The Challenge for Africa.” Massive Open Online Course offered through Edx.
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Roseth, Vivian V., Alexandria Valerio, and Marcela Gutierrez. 2016. Education, Skills and Labor Market Outcomes: Results from Large-Scale Adult Skill Surveys in Urban Areas in 12 Countries. Washington, DC: World Bank.
- Source: Ackah, Adjasi, and Turkson 2016; Osei, Atta-Ankomah, and Lambon-Quayefio 2020.
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Tan, Chih Ming, and Dhanushka Thamarapani. 2018. “The Impact of Sustained Attention on Labor Market Outcomes: The Case of Ghana.” Review of Development Economics 23 (1): 155–71.
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- The Electrical and Electronics (E&E) industry is one of the leading industries of Malaysia, accounting for 24.5 percent of manufacturing value-added. In 2014, Malaysia’s exports of E&E products accounted for 49.2 percent of exports of manufactured goods and 32.9 percent of overall exports. Major export destinations are China, the United States, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Japan. Reflecting Malaysia’s role in the global value chains in the industry, E&E products were also the largest imports by volume, accounting for 37.8 percent of manufactured goods imports and 28.8 percent of total imports.
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- Timmer, Marcel P., Gaaitzen de Vries, and Klaas de Vries. 2015. “Patterns of Structural Change in Developing Countries.” In J. Weiss & M. Tribe (Eds.), Routledge Handbook of Industry and Development. (pp. 65-83). Routledge.
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World Bank. 2012. World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development. Washington, DC: World Bank.
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