Abstract

An efficient algorithm is presented to construct arbitrary zonohedra and to "zonohedrify" a given polyhedron. There are relatively few interesting processes which input an arbitrary polyhedron and output a related polyhedron. Well-known examples are truncation, stellation, dualization (reciprocation in a sphere), and compounding. To this list, can be added zonohedrification, in which the vertex directions of the original polyhedron (relative to an arbitrary center) determine the edge directions of the resulting zonohedrification. A few mathematical properties of zonohedra are outlined, to give the reader insight into zonohedral structure and an understanding of the algorithm.

Background

Zonohedra are beautiful, interesting polyhedra bounded by zonogons, where a zonogon is a polygon in which the edges come in equal opposite parallel pairs. The faces and the solid are necessarily centrally symmetric, and may have additional symmetries. In the special case where all the faces happen to be four-sided, a zonohedron is bounded by parallelograms.

Some simple, zonohedra are shown in Figure 1. All are easily generated by the algorithm presented below. In addition to their aesthetic quality, zonohedra are the form of certain mineral crystals, they are projections into 3-space of higher dimensional hypercubes, they pop up in the analysis of quasi-regular "Penrose" tilings of the plane, they have been proposed as architectural structures, and a number of familiar polyhedra happen to be zonohedra. One special type of zonohedron is the polar zonohedron, which was illustrated in the Spring, 1996 issue of this Journal [1]. Three excellent references [2, 3, 4] discuss the general case at the recreational, undergraduate, and graduate levels respectively. From a mathematical perspective, zonohedra are particularly notable for the way in which they intertwine combinatorial and geometric properties. One relevant theorem [3, p. 28] is that if each face of a convex polyhedron is centrally symmetric, then the entire solid is centrally symmetric. We only consider convex zonohedra here; two interesting nonconvex zonohedra are illustrated in [3, p. 103].

Figure 1. Some familiar polyhedra which are zonohedra: (a) cube, (b) truncated octahedron, (c) truncated cuboctahedron, (d) truncated icosidodecahedron, (e) rhombic dodecahedron, (f) octagonal prism, (g) truncated rhombic dodecahedron, (h) elongated dodecahedron, (i) rhombic enneacontahedron. These have respectively 3, 6, 9, 15, 4, 5, 7, 5, and 10 zones, and are the zonohedrifications of an octahedron, cuboctahedron, tetrakis cube (i.e., replace each face of a cube with a low square pyramid), icosidodecahedron, cube, octagonal pyramid, square pyramid, and dodecahedron.

The zonohedra illustrated in Figure 1 are zonohedrifications of other polyhedra listed in the caption. The geometric relation between a polyhedron, P, and its zononedrification, Z, is the following: For every plane defined by the center, v₀, of P and (at least) two vertices, v₁, v₂, of P there are two equal opposite faces of Z parallel to that plane. Furthermore, these two opposite faces of Z have edges which are parallel to and equal to the lines v₀v₁ and v₀v₂. Furthermore, every edge of Z comes about in that manner, i.e., every edge is congruent and parallel to a line v₀v_i for some vertex v_i of P.

As an example, given an octahedron, we can find three different planes each defined by two vertices and the octahedron's center. (Each plane happens to contain 4 vertices.) Evidently, the six faces of a (properly oriented and scaled) cube come in pairs parallel to these three orthogonal planes, and the edges of the cube are each equal and parallel to some line connecting a vertex of the octahedron with its center. We write cube=Z[octahedron], where Z[P] indicates the zonohedrification of P. (Coincidentally, the cube is also the dual of the octahedron; usually the dual and the zonohedrification are distinct.)

To continue the example, we find that Z[cube], i.e., Z[Z[octahedron]], is the rhombic dodecahedron. Observe in Figure 1e that the edges of the rhombic dodecahedron are each in one of four directions, corresponding to the four diagonals of the cube. Continuing, Z[Z[Z[octahedron]]], i.e., Z[rhombic dodecahedron], is a form of truncated rhombic dodecahedron (Figure 1g). The process can be nested indefinitely, producing a sequence of new polyhedra starting with any polyhedron.

The definition above assumes that v₀ (the center of P) is well defined. If P has a center of symmetry, it is a natural choice for v₀, but the zonohedrification of an arbitrary irregular polyhedron will depend on what point we choose to call v₀. The software below takes the origin as v₀. Starting with a square pyramid (half an octahedron), the zonohedrification is still a cube if v₀ is chosen to be the center of the base, but an elongated dodecahedron (Figure 1h) if v₀ lies above or below the center of the base. The elongated dodecahedron is notable for being one of the five convex solids which are space-filling by translation (without rotation or reflection). These five solids, Figures 1a, b, e, h, and 3b, are each the Voronoi cell of a three-dimensional lattice and so any sheared or stretched version is equally space filling. They were first enumerated by the Russian crystallographer E. S. Fedorov, who originally defined and studied zonohedra a century ago.

To appreciate zonohedra, one must see their zones. Given one edge of any zonohedron, there exists a set of equal parallel edges, e.g., four vertical edges of a cube. A zone is the set of faces which contain edges from that set, e.g. four vertical faces of the cube. Such a set must form a band which encircles the zonohedron like a belt. This is because, by definition, all the faces are zonogons, so given an edge, a face incident with that edge has an equal opposite edge, and one can hop from edge to edge moving across a face with each hop and stepping only on equal parallel edges. As there are only a finite number of such edges, eventually the sequence of hops must return to the starting edge.

From this circumhopping construction, it follows that a zonohedron has a number of zones equal to the number of different edge directions and, in fact, the set of edge directions determines the zonohedron. If we consider each edge direction vector to be rooted at the origin, we have what is called a star of n vectors. When we zonohedrify a polyhedron, we will use its vertices to determine the star and then the star will determine the generated polyhedron. If the vectors in the star are of equal length, the edges of the resulting zonohedron are equal, and it is called an equilateral zonohedron. For example, Figure 1h is not equilateral; by shortening its vertical edges an equilateral zonohedron can be obtained. Similarly, any zonohedron can be made equilateral, i.e., unit length vectors can be chosen for the star.

If a zonohedron is made entirely of parallelograms and has more than three zones, one can remove any zone from it and assemble the two disconnected pieces to obtain a smaller zonohedron, with one less zone. Figure 2 illustrates this process starting with (a) the 6-zone 30-face rhombic triacontahedron. (It is Z[icosahedron]; the twelve vertices of an icosahedron lie on six "long diagonal" lines which define the zonal edge directions.) By steps, it is first reduced to (b) a 5-zone 20-face rhombic icosahedron (which is a polar zonohedron, Z[pentagonal antiprism]), then (c) the 4-zone 12-face rhombic dodecahedron of the second kind [Footnote 1], and finally (d) a 3-zone 6-face parallelepiped.

Figure 2. By a series of zone removals, any zonohedron bounded by parallelograms is reducible to a parallelepiped. In each step, a zone is removed and the two remaining "hemispheres" are brought together. Starting with (a) the rhombic triacontahedron, we get (b) a rhombic icosahedron, (c) a rhombic dodecahedron of the second kind, and (d) a parallelepiped. The reverse process can be used in a zonohedra construction algorithm.

Observe in the previous paragraph that n-zone zonohedra have n(n-1) faces. This is always the case when a zonohedron is bounded by parallelograms. The reason is easily seen if one observes that every pair of zones intersects twice, at two opposite faces. As there are (n choose 2) = n(n-1)/2 possible pairs of zones, it follows that there are n(n-1) faces. In the general case, where some zonogon faces have more than 4 sides, there will be fewer faces, as some faces are the intersection of 3 or more zones. The combinatorics of counting faces, edges, and vertices is interesting, but not needed here.

One can reverse the zone-removal process of Figure 2 and write an algorithm which constructs a zonohedron zone-by-zone, but I have found that approach to be relatively slow. Before describing a faster method, let me first mention and dismiss an even slower method.

If an n-dimensional hypercube is linearly projected into 3-space, the convex hull of the projection is an n-zone zonohedron. Figure 3 shows how a 4-dimensional hypercube projects into 3-space giving a 4-zone solid which can be either (a) a skewed version of the rhombic dodecahedron or (b) a hexagonal prism. Hexagonal faces arise if three of the hypercube's edge directions are projected into coplanar vectors. A relatively simple program can carry out these steps, but is prohibitively slow because the hypercube has 2ⁿ vertices. Although the final zonohedron (after taking the convex hull) has a number of components which is polynomial in n, the intermediate steps require time which is exponential in n. So the method is unsuitable for the larger examples below, but it leads to a useful data structure for zonohedral components.

Figure 3. Projecting a 4-dimensional hypercube into 3-space and looking at its exterior typically gives (a) an object whose exterior is a skewed rhombic dodecahedron. In the special case where the projections of three hypercube edges happen to be coplanar, the result can be (b) an irregular hexagonal prism.

Data Structures

Effective data structures, appropriate to the problem domain, are essential. To begin with, the star is simply a list of n 3-vectors, each given by an {x, y, z} coordinate representation. The order of the vectors in the star is not important as it will be treated like a set. For the examples of Figure 3, I chose:

  starFig3a={{1,0,0}, {0,1,0}, {0,0,1}, {-1/2, 1/2, 1/2}}

  starFig3b={{1,0,0}, {0,1,0}, {0,0,1}, {1,1,0}}

In the first case, four vectors in general position were selected, i.e., no three vectors are coplanar, so the result is bounded by parallelograms. In the second case, three vectors lie in a plane, and so the zonohedron contains hexagons in parallel planes.

We next define a "p-representation" to represent parts such as faces, edges, and vertices. Observe that there are three possible positions for a part relative to the nth zone: the part can be entirely on one side of the nth zone, entirely on the other side of the zone, or (if not a vertex) it can span the zone. We represent any part with a list of n elements in which the nth component is respectively 1, -1, or 0. Figure 4 illustrates this representation with the examples of Figure 3. The sign of any +/-1 is understood in terms of the corresponding element of the star. Observe that a hexagon representation has three zeros as it spans three zones, a parallelogram has two zeros, an edge has 1 zero, and a vertex representation has zero zeros, i.e., it consists entirely of 1's and -1's. These are just the Cartesian coordinates in n-space of the center of the edge-two hypercube component which is the preimage of the part.

Figure 4. The parts of an n-zone zonohedron are named with an n-vector of 0's, 1's, and -1's. The star for (a) is (c); the star for (b) is (d). Both have four zones, but in (b,d), three zonal directions are coplanar giving a hexagonal face.

One useful property of this representation is that a part p is centrally opposite the part -p. For another, notice that a part p₁ is a subpart of p₂ iff p₂ is 0 in all positions where they differ. So, to find the two endpoints of an edge, we replace the 0 in its representation first with 1 and then with -1. There is also a simple method to find the edge opposite a given edge, p₁, within a given face, p₂. We simple negate those components of p₁ which are zero in p₂, while keeping the other components unchanged, i.e., compute 2 p₂ - p₁.

Finally, we need a data structure for a complete polyhedron which can be the input and output of a zonohedrify function, so we can nest it. The format we will use is that a polyhedron is a list of faces, a face is a list of vertices (in a cyclic order around the perimeter), and a vertex is an {x, y, z} triple. Mathematica provides a package of polyhedra, but in a different form. The built-in function Vertices returns a list of a built-in polyhedron's vertices, in {x, y, z} form. The built-in function Faces provides a list of its faces, where each face is represented as a list of indices into Vertices. We define a function builtInPolyto convert a built-in polyhedron from that format into our format.

  builtInPoly[polyhedron_] :=
    Map[Vertices[polyhedron][[#]]&,
      Faces[polyhedron], {2}]

We can easily extract the vertices of a polyhedron in our format:

  vertices[poly_] := Union[Flatten[poly, 1]]

The following function takes a polyhedron in our format and displays it with Mathematica's 3D graphics. Each face must be headed with Polygon.

  view[poly_] := Show[Graphics3D[Map[Polygon, poly]],
                      Boxed->False]

For example, to load the polyhedra package and then convert and display the built-in icosahedron, we type:

  <<Graphics`Polyhedra`

  view[builtInPoly[Icosahedron]]

Procedures

With the above background and data structures, we will now build up the zonohedrification procedures in a bottom-up manner. First, a standard 3-space cross product produces a 3-vector orthogonal to two given vectors.

  cross[ {ax_, ay_, az_}, {bx_, by_, bz_} ] :=
         {ay bz - az by, az bx - ax bz, ax by - ay bx}

Closely related is the next procedure, which tests if two vectors are collinear. Ideally, collinear vectors have a cross product of {0, 0, 0}, but I have included a small leeway of 0.000001 in the zero test here, because the Graphics`Polyhedra` database gives floating point values. (This should be modified to an exact test of zero if one starts with exact vertex coordinates.)

  tolerance = 0.000001

  collinear[ v1_, v2_ ] :=
    Apply[And, Map[Abs[#]<tolerance&, cross[v1,v2]]]

We will build the star by choosing vertices one by one from the set of vertices of the given polyhedron. Only nonzero vertices not collinear with any vertices already selected are chosen. The following routine makes this selection then prints out the number of zonal directions. It is convenient to use a global variable gStar in many of the routines below because the star remains constant in a single zonohedrification. The last line of this routine sets this global variable, so it need not be continuously passed from one routine to the next. (The elements of gStar are halved because the distance from +1 to -1 in p-representations is 2.)

  setStar[vlist_] :=
    Module[{selected={}},
      Scan[Function[v, If[v!={0,0,0} &&
        Select[selected, collinear[v,#]&]=={},
          AppendTo[selected,v]] ], vlist];
      Print[Length[selected]," zonal directions."];
      gStar=selected/2] (* set global variable *)

The number of zonal directions is often half the number of vertices of the original polyhedron because in centrally symmetric polyhedra (unlike the tetrahedron for example) vertices come in diametrically opposed pairs, and one from each pair suffices. For example, although a cube has eight vertices, it is centrally symmetric, so there are only four noncollinear directions, and Z[cube] = Z[tetrahedron]. Thus, setStar[vertices[builtInPoly[Cube]]]; prints out 4 zonal directions.

We will need a function for converting a vertex from our p representation to {x,y,z} coordinates, i.e., projecting from n-space, treating the star as a transformation matrix. Given a vertex p, this adds or subtracts the vectors in the star, according to whether the components of p are +1 or -1.

  pToXYZ[p_] := Apply[Plus, MapThread[Times, {gStar,p}]]

We also need a function to compute a vector normal to the plane of a face. Because a face spans at least two zones, (more if it has more than 4 sides) its p contains at least two zeros. We find the zeros with Position and use subscripting to unpack the first two indexes. The cross product of the corresponding elements in the star gives the normal vector.

  faceNormal[p_] := With[{ indices = Position[p,0] },
    cross[gStar[[indices[[1,1]]]], gStar[[indices[[2,1]]]] ]]

The next function determines the two endpoints of a given edge. We assume the argument has a single 0 and replace it once with -1 and once with +1:

  endPoints[p_] :=
    {Map[If[#==0,-1,#]&, p], Map[If[#==0,1,#]&, p]}

Because each of a zonohedron's faces are defined by two (or more) of the n vectors in its star, we will find it useful to have a function which creates a list of all pairs {i, j} where 1<=i<j<=n. For example, allPairs[4] returns{{1,2}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {2,3}, {2,4}, {3,4}}.

  allPairs[n_] := With[{ indices=Table[i, {i,n}] },
    Select[Flatten[Outer[List,indices,indices],1],
           #[[1]]<#[[2]]&]]

To make a face parallel to the ith and jth star vector, the convexity of the zonohedron is implicitly used. The following routine first determines a normal vector to a plane containing those edge directions. Then it checks the vectors of the star to see on which side of this plane they point. That is accomplished by examining the dot product of the normal with each vector of the star. The dot product of a vector and the normal to the plane is zero for vectors in the plane, positive for vectors pointing across the plane one way, and negative for vectors pointing across the plane the other way. At least two must be zero (because the ith and jth lie in the plane), but others may also be if the zonohedron contains larger zonogons. Again a tolerance is used in the zero test, because we can not expect exact planarity from floating point vertex coordinates.

  makeFace[{i_,j_}] :=
    With[{ normal=cross[gStar[[i]], gStar[[j]]] },
      Map[approxSign[normal.#]&, gStar]]

  approxSign[x_] := If[Abs[x]<tolerance, 0, Sign[x]]

Applying makeFace to all of the pairs {i,j} with i<j produces a list of half the faces. The other half, i.e., the {j,i}, are geometrically opposite, so we save a little time by generating them as -p for every p in the first half. The following function allFaces thereby generates a list of the p representations of all the faces. The Union operation is required to eliminate duplicate entries which result when a face is generated by three (or more) coplanar entries, e.g., {i,j}, {i,k}, and {j,k}.

  allFaces :=
    With[{halfTheFaces=Map[makeFace, allPairs[Length[gStar]]]},
      Union[halfTheFaces, -halfTheFaces]]

Given this list of all faces, we need to find the edges which bound each. The procedures are analogous, because a zonogon face is a 2-dimensional zonotope. (A zonotope is an arbitrary-dimension generalization of the 3D zonohedron.) Three differences are (1) that normal directions for each edge are chosen to lie in the plane of the face, (2) we don't test every component of the star, just the ones which lie in the face, and (3) after finding half the edges, the other half are chosen to lie geometrically opposite not across the entire solid, but opposite within the face, using the 2 p₂ - p₁ formula discussed above. The first function below takes an argument i which is the index of one of the zeros in p, and returns the edge of the face that has a zero at that position. The second function applies this to all the edge directions of a given face.

  makeEdge[i_, p_, faceNormal_] :=
    With[{normal=cross[gStar[[i]], faceNormal]},
    MapThread[If[#1!=0, #1, approxSign[#2.normal]]&,
      {p, gStar}]]

  makeEdges[p_] :=
    With[{normal=faceNormal[p]},
      With[{halfEdges=Map[makeEdge[#, p, normal]&,
        Flatten[Position[p, 0]]]},
        Union[halfEdges, Map[2p-#&, halfEdges]]]]

With the above routines, we have the components required to generate a line drawing of the edges of any zonohedron. The following first finds the edges for each face, and flattens them into a list of all edges. Then each edge in p form is converted to a Line with two endpoints in {x,y,z} format.

  allEdges := Union[Flatten[Map[makeEdges, allFaces], 1]]

  lineDrawing :=
    Map[Line[Map[pToXYZ, endPoints[#]]]&, allEdges]

  Show[Graphics3D[lineDrawing], Boxed->False]

Line drawing graphic output is illustrated in Figure 4. However, to generate our polyhedron format and solid graphics3D output, we need a further step to create a polygon for each face, consisting of its vertices sorted into a correct cyclic order. The following function does this by creating a list of edges and vertices which are parts of a given face. It applies the cycleSort routine described below to the vertices.

  makePolygon[p_] :=  With[{edges=makeEdges[p]},
    With[{vertices=Union[Flatten[Map[endPoints, edges],1]]},
      cycleSort[Map[pToXYZ, vertices]]]]

The cyclesort routine arranges the vertices in a cyclic order by using a two-argument arctangent function to compute an angle for each vertex as seen from the centroid. A general-purpose sortBy function sorts any list according to a given numeric function of its elements. The sorting Function[{x,y}, N[x[[1]]]<N[y[[1]]]] explicitly converts the arctangents to numerical form to avoid the problem of Mathematica’s built-in Sort function putting 0 before both p and -p .

  cycleSort[vertices_] :=
    With[{centroid=Apply[Plus,vertices]/Length[vertices]},
      sortBy[ArcTan[(#-centroid).(vertices[[1]]-centroid),
        (#-centroid).(vertices[[2]]-centroid)]&, vertices]]

  sortBy[fn_, list_] :=
    Map[#[[2]]&, Sort[Map[{fn[#],#}&, list,
      Function[{x,y}, N[x[[1]]]<N[y[[1]]]]]]

Putting everything together, the following takes a polyhedron, makes a star from its vertices, and outputs the zonohedrification.

  zonohedrify[poly_] :=
    setStar[vertices[poly]];
    Map[makePolygon, allFaces]

Examples

To generate the rhombic triacontahedron (Figure 2a) and then its zonohedrification (Figure 5), we can type:

  rhombicTriacontahedron =
    zonohedrify[builtInPoly[Icosahedron]];

  view[rhombicTriacontahedron];

  view[zonohedrify[rhombicTriacontahedron]]

Figure 5. The zonohedrification of the rhombic triacontahedron.

Using Nest, we can construct, Z[Z[Z[octahedron]]], the truncated rhombic dodecahedron of Figure 1g, . The result is composed of squares and hexagons, and is easy to confuse with the truncated octahedron (Figure 1b) if one doesn't look carefully.

  view[Nest[zonohedrify, builtInPoly[Octahedron], 3]]

The zonohedrify procedure can also create a zonohedron from any arbitrary star if we embed the star in a list (so it appears like the vertices of one face of a polyhedron). For example, to generate the hexagonal prism of Figure 3b using the star defined above:

  view[zonohedrify[ {starFig3b} ]]

A polar zonohedron, illustrated in [1], is the zonohedrification of a prism or antiprism. Although prisms and antiprisms are not present in the built-in polyhedra package, their zonohedrifications can be created with a star of vectors arranged like the ribs of an umbrella:

  polarStar[n_] :=
    Table[{Sin[2 Pi i/n], Cos[2 Pi i/n], 1}, {i,1,n}]//N;

  view[zonohedrify[ {polarStar[10]} ]]

Particularly interesting zonohedra result if we use the symmetry axes of a regular polyhedron as the star. These axes pass through the vertices, face centers, and edge midpoints of a regular polyhedron, so the following three auxiliary routines are useful.

  faceCenters[poly_] :=
    Map[Apply[Plus, #]/Length[#]&, poly]

  edgeMidpoints[poly_] :=
    Union[Flatten[Map[(#+RotateLeft[#])/2&, poly],1]]

  unit[v_] := v/Sqrt[v.v]

With them, we can create a list of the 31 axes of symmetry of an icosahedron (six 5-fold axes through the vertices, ten 3-fold axes through the face centers, and fifteen 2-fold axes through the edge midpoints) to use as a star. The function unit provides a unit-length vector in the given direction, so the result is an equilateral zonohedron.

  view[zonohedrify[{Map[unit, Join[
    vertices[builtInPoly[Icosahedron]],
    faceCenters[builtInPoly[Icosahedron]],
    edgeMidpoints[builtInPoly[Icosahedron]] ]]}]]

The resulting 31-zone, 242-face polyhedron is shown as Figure 6. It has been proposed [6] as the basis for an architectural system, akin to geodesic domes but with a smaller inventory of parts and a greater variety of forms.

Figure 6. 31-zone zonohedron based on the 31 axes of symmetry of the icosahedron (242 faces).

One final example is the zonohedrification of the truncated cuboctahedron. This is the largest of fifteen paper zonohedra models shown in Plate II of [3]. It is easy to generate if we first create a truncated cuboctahedron (Figure 1c) as the zonohedrification of a star of the three 4-fold axes and six 2-fold axes of a cube.

  truncatedCuboctahedron = zonohedrify[{Map[unit,
    Join[faceCenters[builtInPoly[Cube]],
      edgeMidpoints[builtInPoly[Cube]] ]]}];

  view[zonohedrify[truncatedCuboctahedron]]

The result, shown here as Figure 7, has 24 zones and 552 parallelogram faces.

Figure 7. The zonohedrification of the truncated cuboctahedron (24-zones, 552 faces).

Conclusions

An intricate but fast algorithm has been presented which creates the zonohedrification of a polyhedron or an arbitrary star of vectors. It can be used to generate and display a wide variety of interesting, new polyhedra of which a few are shown here. The electronic supplement contains a notebook which generates all these examples.

The only output format illustrated here is Graphics3D, but conversion to other formats is straightforward. Three-dimensional virtual reality versions of these zonohedra are available for viewing on the internet at [7]. A different approach to zonohedra is given in [8], which appeared after this was written.

Notes

1. The usual rhombic dodecahedron (Figure 1e) and the rhombic dodecahedron of the second kind (Fig 2c) each have twelve identical rhombic faces, but of different shapes.  Johannes Keppler discovered the first, but the origin of the second is unclear.  Although Coxeter [3, p. 31] cites a 1960 reference as its first publication, I have observed that it appears in the form of a pop-up paper model (!) in a 1752 geometry text [5].

1. Russell Towle, "Polar Zonohedra," Mathematica Journal, Vol. 6, No. 2, Spring, 1996, pp. 8-12.
2. W.W. Rouse Ball and H.S.M. Coxeter, Mathematical Recreations and Essays, New York, 1938; 11th ed., (Dover reprint, 1960).
3. H.S.M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Macmillan, 1963, (Dover reprint, 1973).
4. Gunter M. Ziegler, Lectures on Polytopes, Springer-Verlag, 1995.
5. John Lodge Cowley, Geometry Made Easy, 1752.
6. Steve Baer, Zome Primer, Zomeworks, P.O. Box 712, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
7. http://www.li.net/~george/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html
8. David Eppstein, "Zonohedra and Zonotopes," Mathematica in Education and Research, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 15-21, 1996.